The Precarious State of France in the Late 1420s

By 1427, France stood at a critical juncture in the prolonged conflict with England known as the Hundred Years’ War. The French monarchy under Charles VII faced existential threats from multiple directions – English forces controlled much of northern France including Paris, while internal divisions among the French nobility weakened the kingdom’s ability to mount effective resistance. The situation appeared particularly dire in the Loire Valley region, where English commanders sought to expand their control southward toward the heart of French royal territory.

This period witnessed the emergence of a new generation of French military leaders who would prove crucial in reversing the kingdom’s fortunes. Figures like La Hire, Jean de Dunois (the Bastard of Orléans), and Gilles de Rais demonstrated increasing tactical skill in engagements against English forces. Their successes in smaller battles during 1427 showed promise, but France desperately needed coordinated leadership and strategic vision to capitalize on these local victories.

The Montargis Campaign and Early French Successes

In early September 1427, a pivotal engagement occurred near Montargis that demonstrated both French resilience and English vulnerability. A French supply convoy originally destined for the besieged city abandoned its planned route when officers discovered weaknesses in English fortifications. On September 5, French forces divided into two groups and launched a surprise attack against English commanders John de la Pole and Henry Basset west of the city.

The timing proved perfect – catching English troops during their midday meal. As smoke and flames spread through their camp, defenders from Montargis sallied forth, creating a devastating pincer movement. La Hire’s forces routed John de la Pole’s contingent before joining combat against Basset’s dismounted cavalry. The English collapse became complete when retreating soldiers overloaded a floating bridge to Warwick’s positions, causing its collapse under the weight of panicked men and a deliberate flood released by French defenders.

This victory at Montargis, combined with simultaneous French successes at Ambrières and other locations, temporarily halted English advances in the Loire Valley region. French commanders capitalized on these wins to launch counteroffensives, reclaiming towns like Le Lude, Nogent-le-Rotrou, and others in Maine and Perche. These operations demonstrated growing French tactical sophistication in combining artillery bombardments with rapid assaults.

The Paralysis of French Leadership

Despite these military successes, France’s war effort suffered from crippling political divisions. Constable Arthur de Richemont, the kingdom’s supreme military commander, became increasingly distracted by court intrigues and personal rivalries with figures like Georges de la Trémoille. His abrupt departure from the front in late 1427 to attend a noble gathering aimed at protecting his political position left French forces without unified leadership.

The situation worsened when Arthur’s brother, John V of Brittany, betrayed the French cause by reaffirming allegiance to Henry VI of England through the Treaty of Troyes on September 8. This defection severely damaged French morale and strategic position, while providing ammunition for Arthur’s political enemies. By October, Arthur found himself stripped of royal subsidies and banished from court, becoming a scapegoat for his brother’s betrayal.

French internal conflicts reached their nadir in 1428 when Arthur and allied nobles like Charles of Clermont and Bernard of Armagnac attempted armed rebellion against Charles VII. Their occupation of Chinon and subsequent maneuvers created near-civil war conditions precisely when England was preparing major offensives. Although Charles VII eventually reconciled with most rebels by July 1428, these divisions critically weakened France’s ability to respond to the gathering English threat.

The English Resurgence and the Drive Toward Orléans

While France descended into factional strife, English regent John of Bedford reorganized his forces for renewed campaigns. Angered by French repudiation of surrender agreements at La Gravelle, Bedford executed hostages and replaced commander John Fastolf before restarting operations against Montargis and other Loire positions.

The English strategic situation benefited from Thomas Montagu, Earl of Salisbury’s return to France in mid-1428 with fresh troops. Salisbury’s campaign took an unexpected turn when he abandoned plans to attack Anjou and instead targeted Orléans – a decision Bedford later criticized as inexplicable. This shift likely reflected influence from Humphrey of Gloucester, who favored bold strikes at enemy heartlands over cautious territorial consolidation.

Salisbury’s offensive proved devastatingly effective. By early October, his forces had captured thirty-eight surrounding strongpoints including Meung-sur-Loire and Beaugency, isolating Orléans. The siege proper began on October 12, with English forces initially focusing on the southern approaches across the Loire River. Fierce fighting for the Tourelles fortress at the bridge’s southern end culminated in French withdrawal after days of artillery bombardment, though not before inflicting heavy casualties including the mortal wounding of Salisbury himself on October 27.

The Siege of Orléans and France’s Darkest Hour

Following Salisbury’s death, William de la Pole, Earl of Suffolk assumed command of the siege operations. English forces established a series of fortified positions (bastilles) around Orléans during winter 1428-29, gradually tightening the noose. French relief efforts proved disjointed and ineffective, culminating in the disastrous Battle of the Herrings (Rouvray) on February 12, 1429.

This engagement saw French forces under Charles of Clermont fail to intercept an English supply convoy near Rouvray. Poor coordination and the impetuous charge of Scottish commander John Stewart of Darnley led to catastrophic defeat, with Stewart and many Scottish troops killed. The loss devastated Orléans’ defenders and left Charles VII’s government in despair, with some considering flight to Dauphiné or even Scotland.

The Seeds of French Revival

Despite these grim developments, several factors hinted at coming change. The prolonged siege allowed time for French forces to reorganize, while English resources stretched thin attempting to maintain the blockade. The arrival of Scottish reinforcements in January 1429, though ultimately disappointing in numbers, showed France’s ability to secure foreign support. Most significantly, the political reconciliation between Charles VII and most rebellious nobles by mid-1428, however fragile, began restoring some unity to the French cause.

The stage was set for the dramatic events of 1429, when an unlikely savior would emerge to reverse France’s fortunes. The siege of Orléans represented both the nadir of French hopes and the turning point from which national revival would begin. The city’s defense, against overwhelming odds, preserved the last major barrier to English domination of central France and kept alive the possibility of eventual victory.

This period of the Hundred Years’ War demonstrates how military success depends as much on political cohesion and strategic vision as battlefield tactics. France’s early victories in 1427-28 showed tactical improvement but failed to produce decisive results due to leadership failures and internal divisions. Conversely, English commanders like Salisbury demonstrated operational brilliance but lacked the resources to fully exploit their advantages. The lessons learned during these difficult years would soon bear fruit as France moved toward its remarkable renaissance under unified leadership.