The Gathering Storm: Prelude to Battle

On the eighth day of the first lunar month in 1593, the Ming army marched out of camp under the command of General Li Rusong, a brilliant military strategist known for his courage and tactical acumen. As he surveyed the formidable walls of Pyongyang, Li knew this engagement would become one of the most significant battles in the Imjin War (1592-1598), Japan’s invasion of Korea that drew Ming China into the conflict.

The Japanese forces, led by Konishi Yukinaga (known in Chinese records as Xiao Xi Xingzhang), had occupied Pyongyang since the previous year. Confident in their superior firearms and defensive positions, the Japanese garrison prepared to repel what they believed would be a poorly equipped Ming assault force. This miscalculation would prove disastrous.

Clash of Arms: The Battle Unfolds

As dawn broke, the Ming forces launched their attack with unexpected ferocity. Contrary to Japanese intelligence reports suggesting the Ming troops only possessed inferior matchlock guns, Li Rusong’s army unveiled their secret weapon – advanced artillery pieces called “Folangji” (Frankish cannons), adapted from Portuguese designs captured decades earlier.

The initial bombardment devastated Japanese positions. According to contemporary accounts, the Ming artillery barrage created “thunderous roars that shook heaven and earth,” raining down stones and lead pellets that killed and wounded numerous defenders, including Konishi himself. The Japanese commander, bleeding from his wounds, reportedly shouted “Daitō!” (Great cannon) in shocked recognition of these weapons far more advanced than anything his forces possessed.

The Ming artillery advantage stemmed from their innovative “mother-child cannon” system, where pre-loaded smaller barrels (child cannons) could be rapidly inserted into larger ones (mother cannons), allowing continuous fire that kept the Japanese pinned down. Some versions carried up to ten pre-loaded chambers, maintaining relentless pressure on the defenders.

Tactical Brilliance and Bloody Stalemate

Despite the artillery superiority, the battle turned into a grueling urban conflict as Japanese forces retreated to fortified positions within the city. The defenders demonstrated remarkable resilience, using elevated positions like the Peony Terrace to rain down gunfire, boiling water, and heavy stones on advancing Ming troops.

The fighting grew particularly intense at the West Gate, where Ming commanders Yang Yuan and Li Rubo (Li Rusong’s brother) both suffered wounds while leading assaults. Li Rusong himself narrowly escaped death when a Japanese bullet struck his helmet. Undeterred, he rose from the ground with blood streaming from his nose (caused by gunpowder fumes) and famously ordered, “Bring me another horse! We fight on!”

Meanwhile, at the North Gate, Ming general Wu Weizhong led a diversionary attack with just 3,000 troops against superior Japanese forces. Though wounded in the chest by a bullet, Wu continued directing the assault, exemplifying the determination of Ming officers. His “sacrificial” attack successfully pinned down Japanese reinforcements that might have turned the tide elsewhere.

The Decisive Blow: Artillery and Deception

After hours of brutal fighting, Li Rusong played his final card – the “Great General Cannons,” massive siege weapons that could fire five-pound lead balls over a mile. These weapons, transported with difficulty from China, now proved their worth by blasting open the crucial Seven Stars Gate.

As Japanese resistance crumbled, Li employed a clever ruse at the South Gate. Ming soldiers disguised as Korean troops easily overwhelmed the poorly motivated Korean collaborators defending that sector. This stratagem allowed Ming forces to penetrate the city from multiple directions.

The final Japanese strongholds fell to a combination of fire attacks and relentless artillery bombardment. Contemporary accounts describe horrific scenes where Japanese defenders were “burned to charcoal” in their fortifications, with the stench of charred flesh reportedly detectable for miles.

Aftermath and Legacy

The battle concluded with a controversial episode. After negotiations, Li Rusong allowed Konishi’s remaining forces to withdraw from Pyongyang – only to ambush them during their retreat. This act, while militarily effective, tarnished Li’s reputation for honor in warfare.

The victory proved decisive. Japanese losses numbered in the thousands, with Konishi’s elite First Army reduced from 18,700 to just 6,520 effectives. Ming casualties totaled 796 dead and 1,492 wounded – remarkably light compared to the devastation inflicted on the invaders.

The Siege of Pyongyang marked a turning point in the Imjin War, demonstrating Ming China’s military sophistication and breaking Japanese momentum in Korea. Li Rusong’s combination of artillery superiority, tactical flexibility, and psychological warfare established him as one of Ming’s most capable generals, though his career would be cut short five years later in another campaign against Mongol forces.

This battle also highlighted the technological edge of Ming forces, particularly in artillery development, contradicting later stereotypes about Chinese military backwardness. The “Folangji” cannons and their innovative loading systems represented cutting-edge military technology of the late 16th century, showcasing China’s ability to adapt and improve upon foreign designs.