The Emergence of a Military Classic

In the third year of the Yuanfeng era of Emperor Shenzong of Song, corresponding to 1080 CE, a significant development occurred in Chinese military scholarship. Seven texts were officially designated as foundational military classics, forming what would become the core curriculum for military education. Among these works stood the Six Secret Teachings, a comprehensive military treatise that would take its place alongside such renowned texts as The Art of War and Methods of Sima. This formal recognition elevated the Six Secret Teachings to the highest echelon of Chinese military thought, where it would shine as one of the seven brightest stars in the constellation of strategic literature.

What distinguished this particular work was its remarkable scope and depth. With approximately twenty thousand characters divided across six volumes—Civil Strategy, Military Strategy, Dragon Strategy, Tiger Strategy, Leopard Strategy, and Dog Strategy—the text comprised sixty detailed chapters. Its comprehensive coverage and sophisticated analysis earned it recognition as the culminating achievement of pre-Qin military theory. Modern scholar Cade Smith would later characterize it as resembling “a military encyclopedia” in its thorough treatment of warfare and statecraft.

Unraveling the Mystery of Origins

The question of authorship and dating has perplexed scholars for centuries. The text’s precise origins remain shrouded in mystery, with historical records presenting at least eight distinct theories regarding its creation.

The earliest attribution appears in the Book of Sui’s Records of Classics and Books, which credits the work to Jiang Wang, better known as Lü Wang or Jiang Ziya, the legendary strategist who served King Wen of Zhou. This theory would place the text’s composition in the late Shang and early Zhou period, around the 11th century BCE. Another hypothesis suggests that the work was compiled by officials during the reign of Duke Huan of Qi , who supposedly organized Zhou archival materials into coherent form.

Several theories point to the Warring States period. Some scholars argue for a mid-Warring States composition, while others advocate for mid-to-late Warring States origins. The most widely accepted contemporary view places the text in the late Warring States period, with scholars like Kong Deqi and Wu Rusong maintaining that it was actually composed by an anonymous author during this turbulent era while being attributed to Jiang Ziya.

More unconventional theories propose even later dates. Some suggest the text emerged during the Qin dynasty as the work of a scholar opposed to the regime’s harsh policies. Others, including Song dynasty historian Luo Bi and Qing scholar Cui Shu, argued for composition during the Chu-Han contention period following the Qin collapse. The latest theory, proposed by Ming scholar Hu Yinglin, suggests the text was actually compiled during the Wei-Jin period by military enthusiasts reconstructing lost materials.

Establishing a Plausible Timeline

Modern archaeological discoveries have enabled scholars to dismiss several of these theories with reasonable certainty. The first, second, and eighth theories can be confidently eliminated based on material evidence.

The text’s detailed discussion of cavalry tactics provides crucial chronological clues. The work establishes standards for cavalry selection, outlines their combat characteristics, and describes coordination between cavalry, infantry, and chariot units. These sophisticated discussions reflect military developments that only emerged after King Wuling of Zhao implemented his famous “riding and shooting in nomadic dress” reforms in 307 BCE, which initiated the widespread use of cavalry in Chinese warfare. This establishes 307 BCE as the earliest possible date for the text’s composition.

Archaeological evidence provides the crucial terminus ante quem. In 1972, excavations at Yinqueshan in Linyi, Shandong province uncovered bamboo slips from an early Western Han tomb that contained text matching portions of the first three volumes of the modern Six Secret Teachings. Further confirmation came in 1973 with discoveries at Dingxian in Hebei province, where bamboo slips from the tomb of Liu Xiu contained text corresponding to chapter titles and content from the received version.

Crucially, these bamboo slips show no evidence of avoiding the personal names of Han emperors—a standard practice in texts copied during their reigns. The absence of such naming taboos, particularly for Emperor Gaozu’s personal name “Bang” and Emperor Wen’s name “Heng,” strongly suggests these copies predate the Han dynasty. This evidence firmly establishes that the text must have been composed before the Chu-Han contention period .

The Most Plausible Conclusion

Based on this evidence, the composition of the Six Secret Teachings can be reasonably placed between 307 BCE and 202 BCE. Among the remaining theories, the fifth—attributing the text to the late Warring States period—appears most convincing. The work’s sophisticated integration of multiple philosophical traditions reflects the intellectual synthesis characteristic of this era.

The text demonstrates remarkable eclecticism, incorporating elements from military, Confucian, Daoist, Legalist, Mohist, and Yin-Yang schools of thought. This comprehensive approach mirrors the intellectual climate of the late Warring States period, when philosophical boundaries became increasingly porous. The work shows particular affinity with other late Warring States texts including The Methods of Wei Liaozi, Sun Bin’s Art of War, Lüshi Chunqiu, Zhuangzi, and Xunzi, sharing similar conceptual frameworks and linguistic patterns.

What distinguishes the Six Secret Teachings from mere compilation is its masterful synthesis of these diverse influences. The author—whose identity remains lost to history—demonstrated exceptional political insight and military understanding, creating not simply an anthology of existing ideas but an original contribution that transcended its sources. The work reflects a sophisticated understanding that military affairs cannot be separated from political considerations—that warfare represents the continuation of politics by other means, to use a later formulation.

Philosophical Depth and Strategic Vision

The text’s organization into six distinct sections reflects a comprehensive approach to statecraft and military affairs. The Civil Strategy volume addresses fundamental principles of governance, establishing the philosophical foundation for all that follows. It emphasizes the moral qualities required of rulers and the importance of virtuous governance as the basis for military success. This section establishes the text’s central premise: that military strength derives from political stability and popular support.

Military Strategy develops these concepts further, exploring the relationship between civil administration and military preparation. The text argues that successful warfare requires thorough preparation in times of peace, including economic development, logistical planning, and personnel selection. This section demonstrates the work’s practical orientation, providing specific guidance on everything from supply management to intelligence gathering.

The subsequent volumes—Dragon, Tiger, Leopard, and Dog Strategies—progress into increasingly specific military applications. Dragon Strategy focuses on command structure and organization, establishing principles for military hierarchy and communication. Tiger Strategy addresses equipment, terrain, and tactical formations, while Leopard Strategy concentrates on specialized tactics and unexpected maneuvers. The final volume, Dog Strategy, covers training methods, military regulations, and the use of different troop types in combination.

Enduring Influence and Modern Relevance

The designation of the Six Secret Teachings as a military classic in 1080 represented formal recognition of its longstanding importance. For centuries before this official sanction, military commanders and strategists had studied and applied its principles. The text’s comprehensive nature made it particularly valuable for military education, providing a systematic framework for understanding warfare in all its dimensions.

The work’s enduring relevance stems from its holistic approach to military affairs. Unlike more narrowly tactical works, the Six Secret Teachings recognizes that successful military operations depend on numerous factors beyond the battlefield: economic capacity, political stability, technological development, and popular support. This comprehensive perspective has ensured its continued study not only by military historians but also by political scientists and leadership theorists.

Modern readers continue to find value in the text’s insights about organizational leadership, strategic planning, and adaptive thinking. Its emphasis on thorough preparation, intelligence gathering, and psychological understanding remains relevant in contexts far beyond traditional warfare. Business leaders, political strategists, and emergency planners have all found applicable wisdom in its pages.

The mystery surrounding the text’s authorship ultimately matters less than its substantial contribution to military thought. Whether composed by a single brilliant strategist or compiled by a team of scholars, the Six Secret Teachings represents one of the most comprehensive and sophisticated military texts to emerge from the ancient world. Its integration of diverse philosophical traditions into a coherent strategic vision demonstrates the remarkable intellectual achievement of Chinese military thought at its height.

As both a practical military manual and a work of political philosophy, the Six Secret Teachings continues to offer valuable insights into the complex relationship between power, governance, and conflict resolution. Its enduring presence in military education and strategic studies stands as testament to its profound understanding of the eternal principles of leadership and strategy.