Introduction: The Emperor’s Heirs

Emperor Wu of Han, one of China’s most formidable rulers, presided over a vast expansion of the Han Empire during his fifty-four-year reign from 141 to 87 BCE. Beyond his military conquests and administrative reforms, the emperor faced a perennial challenge that haunted many monarchs: succession. With six sons born to different mothers, the question of who would inherit the Celestial Throne created complex political dynamics that would shape the empire’s future. The historical records left by two great historians, Sima Qian and Ban Gu, provide fascinating but divergent accounts of these imperial princes, revealing much about the political tensions of the era.

The documentation of Emperor Wu’s sons presents an intriguing historical puzzle. Ban Gu’s “Biographies of the Five Sons of Emperor Wu” written during the Eastern Han dynasty covers five of the six princes, while Sima Qian’s “Hereditary Houses of the Three Kings” from Emperor Wu’s own time focuses on only three. This discrepancy in historical recording offers a window into the delicate political environment surrounding succession in one of China’s most powerful dynasties.

The Historians and Their Records

### Sima Qian: Contemporary Chronicler

Sima Qian, China’s Grand Historian, lived during Emperor Wu’s reign and compiled his monumental “Records of the Grand Historian” while serving at court. His proximity to events gave him unique insight but also required careful navigation of political sensitivities. When documenting Emperor Wu’s sons, Sima Qian made the curious decision to include only three in his “Hereditary Houses of the Three Kings,” merely transcribing official documents related to their enfeoffment as kings without additional commentary.

This minimalist approach likely reflected the precarious nature of Sima Qian’s position. As he wrote during Emperor Wu’s reign, the succession question remained unresolved, and any perceived favoritism toward one potential heir over another could have proven dangerous. By limiting his account to bureaucratic documents about three princes enfeoffed on the same day in 117 BCE, Sima Qian avoided making politically charged judgments about their qualifications for the throne.

### Ban Gu: Later Historian with Perspective

Ban Gu compiled his “Book of Han” during the Eastern Han dynasty, several generations after the events he described. This temporal distance afforded him perspective that Sima Qian lacked. Ban Gu knew definitively which son had ultimately succeeded Emperor Wu and how the succession struggle had unfolded. His “Biographies of the Five Sons of Emperor Wu” could therefore present a more comprehensive account, excluding only Emperor Zhao, the eventual successor, who warranted separate treatment as an emperor rather than merely a prince.

The differences between these two historical records reveal how political context shapes historical writing. Sima Qian, writing in the midst of uncertainty, practiced caution, while Ban Gu, with the benefit of hindsight, could arrange his narrative according to known outcomes.

The Six Princes: An Overview

### The Documented Three

Sima Qian’s “Hereditary Houses of the Three Kings” focuses on three princes enfeoffed simultaneously in 117 BCE: Liu Hong, the second son, became Prince of Qi; Liu Dan, the third son, received the title Prince of Yan; and Liu Xu, the fourth son, was appointed Prince of Guangling. These three middle sons represented a middle ground in the succession struggle—neither the obvious heir nor the favored youngest child.

The simultaneous enfeoffment of these three princes suggests Emperor Wu’s attempt to establish clear positions for his sons while keeping his options open regarding the succession. By granting them territories of roughly equal importance, the emperor may have sought to prevent jealousy and conflict, though this strategy ultimately proved insufficient to prevent political turmoil.

### The Excluded Three

Sima Qian’s account notably excludes three princes: Liu Ju, the eldest son and initial Crown Prince; Liu Bo, the fifth son; and Liu Fuling, the youngest son who would eventually ascend the throne as Emperor Zhao. Each exclusion likely had political motivations.

As Crown Prince, Liu Ju warranted separate treatment in historical records, making his inclusion in a collective biography of princes inappropriate. Liu Fuling, as the eventual successor, similarly transcended the category of mere prince. Liu Bo’s exclusion remains more puzzling, though his connections to powerful political figures may have made documentation risky during Emperor Wu’s reign.

The Succession Struggle Unfolds

### Liu Ju: The Ill-Fated Crown Prince

Born in 128 BCE to Empress Wei Zifu, Liu Ju enjoyed the position of Crown Prince for over thirty years. His mother’s rise from humble beginnings to empress represented one of the great social mobility stories of the Han court. Initially favored by Emperor Wu, Liu Ju seemed destined for the throne until political tensions eroded his position.

The relationship between father and son deteriorated as they adopted different governing philosophies. While Emperor Wu pursued aggressive expansionist policies and heavy taxation to fund military campaigns, the Crown Prince favored a more compassionate approach to governance. This philosophical divergence became dangerous when political factions formed around the two positions.

The tragedy culminated in 91 BCE with the witchcraft scandal that engulfed the capital. Accused of practicing witchcraft against the emperor—a capital offense—Liu Ju was forced to raise troops in self-defense. The ensuing conflict resulted in his death and that of his mother, Empress Wei, effectively eliminating the eldest branch of the imperial family from succession.

### Liu Bo: The Prince of Obscurity

The fifth son, Liu Bo, presents perhaps the most intriguing historical mystery. Born to Emperor Wu’s favorite consort, Lady Li, Liu Bo might have been a strong contender for the throne given his mother’s exceptional favor with the emperor. Lady Li’s legendary beauty and the emperor’s devotion to her even after her early death are well-documented in historical sources.

Liu Bo’s maternal uncle, Li Guangli, commanded significant military power as a general, further strengthening the prince’s position. Yet historical records contain remarkably little information about Liu Bo himself. This absence may reflect political sensitivity rather than unimportance. With powerful backers and royal favor, Liu Bo potentially posed a threat to other factions at court.

The timing of Liu Bo’s death adds to the mystery. Sources differ on whether he died shortly before Emperor Wu’s passing or early in Emperor Zhao’s reign, but the proximity to the succession suggests possible political implications. His obscurity in historical records may indicate deliberate suppression of information about a potential rival to the eventual successor.

### Liu Fuling: The Unexpected Successor

The youngest son, Liu Fuling, seemed an unlikely candidate for the throne for much of his life. Born in 94 BCE to Consort Zhao, he entered the world when his father was already fifty-two years old and the succession question appeared settled in favor of the Crown Prince. The witchcraft scandal that eliminated Liu Ju, however, created an opportunity for the youngest prince.

Emperor Wu’s choice of Liu Fuling as successor reflected several considerations. The emperor may have believed a younger ruler would be more malleable to the guidance of senior ministers he intended to appoint as regents. Additionally, with the mothers of the other potential heirs representing powerful political factions, Consort Zhao’s relative lack of powerful family connections may have made her son appear less likely to be dominated by external influences.

The decision came with tragic consequences for Liu Fuling’s mother. Following a pattern established by earlier Han emperors, Emperor Wu ordered Consort Zhao’s death to prevent her from exerting undue influence as empress dowager. This harsh measure underscores the perceived threat that maternal clans posed to imperial authority during the Han dynasty.

The Political Context of Succession

### The Role of Maternal Families

In Han dynasty politics, a prince’s prospects depended significantly on his maternal connections. Emperor Wu’s own accession had been secured through the influence of his grandmother Empress Dou and his mother Empress Wang, who formed alliances with powerful families at court. Similarly, each of his sons derived political strength or weakness from their maternal relatives.

The case of Empress Chen, Emperor Wu’s first wife, illustrates the importance of maternal connections. Their marriage was explicitly political, engineered by Emperor Wu’s mother to secure the support of Empress Chen’s mother, the influential Princess Guantao. As the daughter of Empress Dowager Dou, Princess Guantao wielded considerable power during the early years of Emperor Wu’s reign.

When Emperor Wu eventually asserted his independence, resentment toward this earlier dependence may have contributed to Empress Chen’s downfall. Historical records describe her as arrogant and presumptuous, but her real offense may have been representing a power structure the emperor wished to escape.

### The Impact of Favoritism

Emperor Wu’s personal attachments significantly influenced the succession question. His transfer of favor from Empress Chen to Empress Wei Zifu, and later to Lady Li, altered the political landscape at court. Each shift in affection elevated new families while diminishing the influence of others, creating instability in the succession planning.

The emperor’s prolonged life further complicated matters. With thirty-seven years passing between the birth of his first and last sons, the age difference created distinct factions around princes of different generations. The eldest son had established his own court and political following long before the youngest son was born, setting the stage for conflict when the succession question reopened late in Emperor Wu’s life.

Historical Interpretation and Legacy

### The Safety of Official Documents

Sima Qian’s decision to limit his “Hereditary Houses of the Three Kings” to transcribed official documents represents a fascinating example of historical caution. In an environment where commenting on imperial succession could prove dangerous, the historian retreated to the safety of bureaucratic records. This approach preserved basic facts while avoiding interpretation that might have offended the emperor or his ministers.

The very blandness of Sima Qian’s account speaks volumes about the political tensions of the era. For a historian known for vivid characterization and critical analysis, this unusually dry presentation suggests deliberate restraint. The documents he transcribed—largely related to the enfeoffment ceremonies—emphasize the ritual aspects of princely status while avoiding discussion of qualifications for imperial rule.

### Later Historical Perspectives

Ban Gu’s more comprehensive account reflects the different political environment of the Eastern Han dynasty. With the succession long settled and the Western Han dynasty concluded, Ban Gu could approach the subject with less caution. His organization of the material—separating the eventual emperor from his brothers—follows standard historiographical practice for treating rulers differently from other royal family members.

The varying levels of detail about different princes in both historical records likely reflect not just political considerations but also the availability of sources. Liu Ju’s prominence as Crown Prince meant extensive documentation of his life, while Liu Bo’s obscurity may result from the suppression of records about a potential rival to the established succession line.

Conclusion: The Succession’s Impact on Han History

The resolution of Emperor Wu’s succession crisis had profound consequences for the Han dynasty. The selection of the young Liu Fuling as Emperor Zhao established a pattern of child emperors and regency governments that would characterize much of the later Western Han period. The political instability following Emperor Wu’s death demonstrated the risks of unclear succession planning in an imperial system.

The differing historical treatments of the six princes reveal how succession politics influenced historical recording in ancient China. Sima Qian’s cautious approach reflects the dangers of writing contemporary history, while Ban Gu’s more comprehensive account shows how temporal distance allows for different perspectives. Together, these records provide a multifaceted view of one of the most critical transitions in Han history.

The story of Emperor Wu’s six sons illustrates broader themes in Chinese imperial history: the tension between primogeniture and selection by merit, the political influence of maternal families, and the challenges of succession planning in a system where the emperor’s authority was absolute but his mortality inevitable. These dynamics would continue to shape Chinese politics for two millennia, making the Han succession crisis a prototype for similar struggles throughout imperial history.