The Puzzle of Spanish Success

In the 16th century, Spanish conquistadors achieved what seemed impossible: small bands of adventurers overthrew the vast Aztec and Inca Empires, two of the most powerful and sophisticated states of their time. Francisco de Jerez, chronicler of Peru’s conquest, voiced the astonishment shared by many: “When in history has so small a group defeated so large a population?”

This question baffles historians even today. Spain, then a relatively poor and peripheral European kingdom, lacked the technological or numerical advantages typically associated with imperial expansion. Yet within decades, Cortés and Pizarro dismantled civilizations that had flourished for centuries. The conquests reshaped global power structures, transferring immense wealth to Europe while devastating indigenous societies.

Origins of the Conquest

Spain’s overseas ambitions began modestly with the 1496 conquest of the Canary Islands, a grueling century-long campaign against Stone Age societies. Yet just decades later, far larger empires fell with startling speed. Several factors set the stage:

– Reconquista Momentum: Fresh from defeating Granada in 1492, Spain’s warrior aristocracy sought new frontiers. The conquest mentality and crusading ideology translated seamlessly to the Americas.
– Accidental Discovery: Columbus’s 1492 voyage opened unexpected opportunities. Unlike later British/French colonization, Spain encountered advanced civilizations ripe for exploitation.
– Timing: The Aztec and Inca Empires faced internal crises—Moctezuma II’s uncertain leadership and Atahualpa’s civil war respectively—when the Spanish arrived.

Key Campaigns and Turning Points

### The Aztec Collapse (1519-1521)

Hernán Cortés landed with 600 men, yet toppled an empire of millions through audacious gambits:

– Alliance Building: Exploiting resentment against Aztec rule, Cortés enlisted 200,000 Tlaxcalan and other warriors. Indigenous forces comprised over 99% of “Spanish” armies.
– Symbolic Strikes: Capturing Moctezuma paralyzed Aztec decision-making. Their state structure, reliant on semi-autonomous city-states, crumbled when the center fell.
– Biological Warfare: Smallpox ravaged Tenochtitlán during the 1520 siege, killing leaders and warriors alike.

### The Inca Downfall (1532-1572)

Francisco Pizarro repeated Cortés’s playbook with eerie precision:

– Decapitation Strategy: At Cajamarca, Pizarro captured Atahualpa despite being outnumbered 200:1. The Inca’s centralized hierarchy collapsed without its divine emperor.
– Civil War Exploitation: The empire was already weakened by Atahualpa’s war against his brother Huáscar. Spanish steel weapons and cavalry proved decisive in mountainous terrain.
– Long Resistance: Though Cuzco fell in 1533, Inca holdouts fought from Vilcabamba until 1572, demonstrating indigenous resilience.

Cultural Collisions and Consequences

The conquest unleashed demographic and cultural catastrophes:

– Population Collapse: Old World diseases killed an estimated 90% of indigenous Americans within a century. Smallpox, measles, and typhus outpaced even Spanish cruelty.
– Religious Upheaval: Franciscans and Dominicans destroyed temples and codices, forcibly converting millions. Syncretic faiths like the Virgin of Guadalupe cult emerged as compromises.
– Economic Transformation: The encomienda system enslaved natives for silver mines and haciendas. Global trade networks shifted as Potosí’s silver flooded Europe and China.

Why Did the Empires Fall?

Historians debate explanations beyond “guns and steel”:

1. Divine Providence? Conquistadors saw victories as God’s will. Bernal Díaz described Cortés’s men as “apostles” destined to convert pagans.
2. Military Superiority? Steel swords, guns, and horses helped, but indigenous allies provided decisive numbers. The Tlaxcalan Lienzo paintings show native warriors leading battles.
3. Imperial Overreach? The Aztec and Inca systems—dependent on tribute and fragile alliances—snapped under pressure. Discontented subjects like the Tlaxcalans joined invaders.
4. Cultural Missteps? Moctezuma’s hesitation—possibly viewing Cortés as Quetzalcoatl—proved fatal. Ritual warfare traditions disadvantaged indigenous armies against Spanish total war.

The Conquistador Paradox

Spain’s victories seem miraculous until examining the role of:

– Native Allies: Without Tlaxcalans, Mexica warriors might have overwhelmed Cortés’s 400 survivors during La Noche Triste.
– Disease: Smallpox preceded Pizarro, killing Huayna Capac and triggering the Inca civil war.
– Logistics: Indigenous porters and guides enabled Spanish mobility. The Inca road system ironically helped invaders.

Lasting Legacies

The conquest’s echoes persist:

– Mestizo Identity: Racial mixing created new social hierarchies still evident in Latin America today.
– Economic Dependence: Extractive economies left post-colonial states vulnerable. Spanish silver fueled globalization but stunted local development.
– Cultural Survival: Indigenous languages, agriculture (potatoes, maize), and art forms endured despite oppression.

As historian J.H. Elliott noted, the real mystery isn’t Spanish victory, but why indigenous societies—despite rebellions like the 1780 Túpac Amaru revolt—never fully expelled the invaders. The answer lies in the fragile alliances and systemic disruptions that made conquest possible—and irreversible.