Introduction: The Cultural Landscape of the Southern States

During the Eastern Zhou period (770-256 BCE), the southern regions adjacent to the powerful state of Chu witnessed a fascinating cultural interplay. Numerous smaller states, while maintaining their distinct identities, became deeply influenced by the flourishing Chu culture before eventually being absorbed into the Chu domain. Archaeological discoveries of tombs from these states reveal artifacts that blend Chu stylistic elements with local characteristics, creating a unique cultural synthesis that scholars classify under the broader category of “Chu-style burials.”

Among these remarkable finds, the tombs of the Cai and Zeng states stand out as particularly significant. The Cai Marquis tombs discovered in Shouxian County and the Marquis Yi of Zeng tomb at Leigudun provide extraordinary windows into the political relationships, artistic achievements, and burial customs of these ancient southern states during a period of intense cultural exchange and political transformation.

The Cai State Tombs: Between Two Powers

The archaeological record preserves two confirmed tombs of Cai rulers, both located near the state’s final capital at Zhoulai (modern Shouxian County, Anhui Province). These burials offer compelling evidence about a small state caught between the competing powers of Chu and Wu during the tumultuous Spring and Autumn period.

### The Shouxian Cai Marquis Tomb

Discovered in 1955 within Shouxian County’s western gate, this nearly square vertical earthen pit tomb (8.45m north-south × 7.1m east-west × 3.35m deep) contained an astonishing array of burial goods despite lacking ramps or stepped platforms. The central burial area featured traces of a lacquered coffin surrounded by cinnabar powder, beneath which lay meticulously arranged jade ornaments and gold leaf pieces. A sacrificial victim was found in the tomb’s southeast corner.

The tomb yielded 584 burial objects, predominantly bronze items (486 pieces). The ritual vessels and daily utensils included:
– 1 cooking ding tripod
– 7 sheng ding ceremonial tripods
– 10 lidded ding tripods
– 8 gui food containers
– 8 li tripods
– Matched sets of fu, dui, dou, bian, square hu, fou (zun fou and guan fou), jian, and pan vessels

These bronzes displayed characteristic Chu decorative styles, particularly intricate panhui (intertwined serpent) patterns similar to those found at Xichuan Xiasi Chu tombs in Henan. Notable masterpieces included:
– Square jian basins with inlaid copper dragon designs
– Dui vessels with dragon motifs
– Guan fou ewers with dragon patterns
– Swords and chariot fittings inlaid with turquoise

The tomb’s 32 musical instruments comprised complete sets of yong bells, bianzhong chime bells, and bianbo chime bo bells. Among 60 weapons were ge dagger-axes, mao spears, swords, axes, and arrowheads. Over 200 chariot and horse fittings included wheel hubs, linchpins, bells, bits, and bridle ornaments.

Approximately 70 bronze items bore inscriptions, the longest containing over 90 characters. Many mentioned “Cai Hou” (Marquis of Cai), confirming the tomb’s royal status. Notably, two Jian vessels were identified as dowry items from King Guang of Wu, commemorating his daughter’s marriage into the Cai royal family.

Historical context dates these artifacts between 493-447 BCE, when Cai relocated its capital to Zhoulai to escape Chu pressure and ally with Wu. The tomb likely belongs to Marquis Shen (r. 518-491 BCE), whose reign exemplified the precarious position of small states between powerful neighbors – simultaneously serving Chu while forming marital alliances with Wu.

### The Huainan Cai Marquis Tomb

Located about 7.5km northeast of Shouxian at Caijiagang, this robbed tomb still yielded important finds when excavated in 1958-59. Among 112 surviving objects were bronze weapons, tools, and chariot fittings. Most significantly, four swords bore gold-inlaid inscriptions – three identifying them as belonging to “Cai Hou Chan” (Marquis Chan of Cai) and one as belonging to a Wu crown prince.

Marquis Chan (r. 471-457 BCE) ruled immediately after Wu’s fall, and the coexistence of Cai and Wu artifacts in his tomb vividly illustrates the close relationship between these states. The presence of a spearhead belonging to King Fuchai of Wu further confirms these historical connections.

The Marvel of Zeng: The Tomb of Marquis Yi

Discovered in 1977 at Leigudun near Suizhou, Hubei, the tomb of Marquis Yi of Zeng represents one of the most spectacular archaeological finds from China’s ancient southern states.

### Architectural Grandeur

This rock-cut vertical pit tomb with wooden chamber measures 21m east-west × 16.5m north-south, covering 220m². The 11m-deep chamber was constructed through red conglomerate sandstone with extraordinary precision. The burial featured elaborate protective measures:
– Layered fills of mixed earth
– A stone slab layer
– 6,000kg of charcoal
– 0.1-0.3m of blue paste clay

The massive wooden chamber (15.72m × 19.7m) used 380m³ of catalpa wood in 171 beams, forming an irregular polygonal space divided into eastern, northern, central, and western compartments.

### Burial Contents

The double coffins in the eastern chamber housed the marquis’s remains (a male aged 42-45) with 300+ jade, bone, and gold items. Twenty-one accompanying burial coffins contained young females (likely concubines or attendants) with simple grave goods.

The tomb yielded over 15,400 objects across categories:
– Ritual Bronzes: 117 pieces including 9 sheng ding and 8 gui – following Zhou royal protocols but with distinct Chu stylistic elements
– Musical Instruments: 125 items forming the world’s earliest complete set of bronze bells (65 bianzhong chimes totaling 2,500kg) with revolutionary musical capabilities spanning 5.5 octaves
– Weapons: 4,700+ items including novel multi-blade ji halberds
– Lacquerware: Exquisite items like painted deer figures and duck-shaped boxes showing Chu influences
– Texts: 240+ bamboo slips (6,600 characters) recording funeral ceremonies and chariot gifts from Chu nobility

The famous bronze zun pan vessel and jian fou ice container represent technical marvels of lost-wax casting. Inscriptions on 200+ bronzes identify Marquis Yi, while a bo bell inscription dates the tomb to 433 BCE or slightly later, recording its gift from King Hui of Chu.

### Historical Significance

Though unmentioned in historical texts, the tomb’s scale confirms Zeng as a significant state. The blend of Chu cultural elements with local characteristics and Zhou ritual protocols reflects the complex political landscape where smaller states maintained identity while accommodating powerful neighbors. By the mid-Warring States period, Zeng culture became fully “Chu-ified,” as seen in later tombs like Leigudun M2 (likely a Zeng consort’s burial) and M13 with typical Chu-style artifacts.

The Enigma of Zeng and Sui

Bronze inscriptions confirm Zeng as a Ji-surname state in the Suizhou region during the Spring and Autumn period. Intriguingly, historical texts mention a Ji-surname Sui state in the same area but never reference Zeng. Most scholars now believe “Zeng” and “Sui” referred to the same state – a fascinating case of dual naming awaiting further archaeological clarification.

Cultural Synthesis and Legacy

The tombs of these southern states reveal several key historical processes:

1. Cultural Adaptation: Smaller states adopted Chu artistic styles and burial customs while retaining distinct elements, creating unique local variations.

2. Political Balancing: The Cai artifacts demonstrate how minor states navigated between major powers through marriage alliances and ritualized submission.

3. Technological Exchange: Bronze-casting techniques, musical theory, and lacquerware production show extensive cultural sharing across the southern region.

4. Historical Preservation: These tombs preserve details about political relationships, ritual practices, and material culture often absent from transmitted texts.

The archaeological record powerfully supplements historical accounts of the Eastern Zhou period, particularly regarding smaller states overshadowed in traditional narratives. The exquisite craftsmanship of these burial goods – from the musical precision of Zeng’s bells to Cai’s intricate inlaid bronzes – testifies to the sophisticated artistic achievements of these ancient southern cultures during an era of intense interaction and transformation.

As physical manifestations of historical processes, these tombs continue to reshape our understanding of China’s multi-state antiquity, revealing the complex interplay between cultural influence, political survival, and artistic innovation that characterized the vibrant world of the Eastern Zhou southern states.