The Strategic Stakes at Verdun

In the grim calculus of World War I, few battles carried the symbolic and strategic weight of Verdun. As noted by H. H. von Mellenthin in the New York Times Magazine in August 1916, capturing the forts around Verdun was never the primary objective. Instead, the German High Command, under Chief of the General Staff Erich von Falkenhayn, conceived of the operation as a means to “bleed France white” by forcing the French Army into a battle of attrition in a sector they would feel compelled to defend at all costs. The ancient fortress city on the Meuse River held profound psychological significance for the French people—it was a symbol of national resilience, dating back to its role in repelling invaders in 1792 and during the Franco-Prussian War. For the Germans, a victory here promised to shatter French morale and potentially knock France out of the war, allowing Germany to turn its full attention to the Eastern Front and, later, to the growing British threat.

The region’s topography—a series of rugged hills, deep ravines, and meandering streams—lent itself to defense but made coordinated large-scale attacks exceedingly difficult. The French had constructed a ring of modern forts around the city, though many had been partially disarmed in the early stages of the war due to the perceived superiority of offensive tactics. When the German Fifth Army, commanded by Crown Prince Wilhelm but effectively directed by his chief of staff, General Schmidt von Knobelsdorf, launched its assault on February 21, 1916, it did so with overwhelming artillery superiority. The initial bombardment, one of the largest in history to that point, sought to obliterate French forward positions and clear the path for infantry advances. Yet, from the outset, the French defense, galvanized by General Philippe Pétain’s famous order “They shall not pass,” proved far more resilient than anticipated.

The Climax of the Battle: June 23 and Its Aftermath

By late June 1916, the Battle of Verdun had already claimed hundreds of thousands of casualties and gained a reputation as one of the most brutal engagements in human history. The fighting had seesawed across a landscape reduced to a desolate, crater-pocked wasteland, with key strongpoints like Fort Douaumont and Fort Vaux changing hands amid unimaginable suffering. June 23 marked a critical juncture. German forces, having pushed to the very outskirts of the city, launched a massive assault aimed at finally breaking through to the ultimate objectives: Fort Souville and the city of Verdun itself. This effort represented the high-water mark of German ambition in the campaign.

The attack was preceded by a ferocious artillery barrage, including the use of Green Cross gas shells—diphosgene, a lethal chemical agent designed to penetrate French gas masks and incapacitate defenders. Yet, French resistance, though battered, held firm. Observers noted the almost superhuman tenacity of the poilus, the French infantrymen, who fought from shell holes, shattered trenches, and the ruins of villages with a determination that astonished even their enemies. The German advance, though initially promising, ground to a halt in the face of this stubborn defense, heavy artillery fire, and the challenging terrain. As President Raymond Poincaré would later declare, it was “a stone wall that shattered the last hopes of the German Empire.”

The failure of the June 23 offensive had profound implications. It demonstrated that German tactical ingenuity and overwhelming firepower could not overcome the depth of French resolve and the logistical advantages afforded by the Voie Sacrée , the sole supply route into Verdun, which French engineers and troops kept open under constant bombardment. Moreover, it coincided with the buildup of the British Army along the Somme River, where a major offensive was planned for late June. The necessity of diverting German resources to counter this new threat further strained Falkenhayn’s strategy and highlighted the Central Powers’ emerging manpower crisis.

Knobelsdorf’s Gambit: The July Offensive

Despite the clear setback, General Knobelsdorf, embodying what some historians have termed a “Teutonic spirit of self-sacrifice” and a Götterdämmerung-like worldview, refused to accept defeat. He persuaded a reluctant Falkenhayn to authorize one final effort at Verdun, arguing that the French were on the brink of collapse and that a concentrated attack on a narrow front might yet achieve a breakthrough. The operation was scheduled for July 9, but it was hamstrung from the start. German forces were exhausted, artillery had been transferred to the Somme, and no fresh divisions were available. Knobelsdorf would have to make do with the depleted units already at hand.

The plan called for an assault by three divisions, including the badly mauled 3rd Jäger Regiment, which had lost 1,200 men the previous month. In a prelude to the main attack, German troops employed a clever ruse to capture the “High Battery” position at Damloup, south of the fallen Fort Vaux. On July 3, they used a heavy mortar to fire dud shells at regular intervals, tricking the French garrison into taking cover in concrete bunkers. While the defenders waited for the expected follow-up bombardment, German infantry crept to within yards of the position. At 2 a.m., upon hearing the first dud impact, they stormed the trenches, capturing the battery, three machine guns, and 100 French soldiers with barely a shot fired.

Yet, fortune once again favored the defenders. On the night of July 7, a torrential downpour drenched the battlefield, turning the chalky soil into a quagmire. The attack was postponed for two days, during which the Bavarian Guards Regiment, tasked with leading the assault on Fort Souville, endured horrific conditions. Stationed on a slope fully visible to French observers, the Germans were ordered to remain motionless to preserve the element of surprise. For three days, they lay in shell holes under constant artillery fire, listening to the cries of the wounded whom they were forbidden to aid. By the evening of July 9, the lead battalion had lost 120 men—a fifth of its strength—and morale had plummeted. As the regimental history noted, “order was only restored that night with great effort.”

The Final Assault and Its Failure

The attack finally commenced just after midnight on July 10. German artillery laid down a heavy barrage of Green Cross gas shells, this time learning from past mistakes by maintaining suppression fire on French batteries well after the infantry advanced and widening the gas coverage to prevent localized breakthroughs. Sergeant Marc Boasson, observing through binoculars, described the scene as “a breathtaking spectacle. We watched the fields gradually disappear, the valleys fill with a deathly gray smoke, clouds spreading and rising, everything taking on a ghostly appearance in this toxic, flowing gas.”

Despite the terrifying display, the assault foundered almost immediately. The muddy ground slowed the advance, exposing the Germans to murderous French machine-gun and rifle fire from higher ground. Units became disoriented in the fog and gas, and coordination between infantry and artillery broke down. The Bavarian Guards, though they pressed forward with courage, could make no headway against the reinforced French positions around Fleury-devant-Douaumont and the approaches to Fort Souville. By midday, it was clear that the attack had failed. German losses were heavy, and no significant gains had been achieved. Knobelsdorf’s last throw of the dice had come to nothing.

Cultural and Social Impacts: The Soul of Nations Forged in Fire

The Battle of Verdun left an indelible mark on the cultural and social fabric of both France and Germany. For France, it became a symbol of national sacrifice and resilience. The phrase “Ils ne passeront pas” entered the patriotic lexicon, and the defense of Verdun was celebrated as a testament to the courage and endurance of the common soldier. The Voie Sacrée, kept open by a continuous stream of trucks braving shellfire and mud, was mythologized as an artery of national survival. This shared ordeal helped to foster a sense of unity and purpose, though it also exacted a terrible toll—over 160,000 French soldiers died at Verdun, and many more were wounded or suffered lasting psychological trauma.

In Germany, the battle had a more ambiguous legacy. Initially presented as a great offensive that would bring decisive victory, the failure to capture Verdun contributed to growing war-weariness and disillusionment with the military leadership. The enormous casualties—estimated at 140,000 dead—were difficult to justify, and the relentless grinding attrition eroded morale on the home front and in the trenches. The Götterdämmerung mentality observed by commentators, which would later manifest in the desperate offensives of 1918 and the fanaticism of the Nazi era, found early expression in the stubborn refusal to abandon the Verdun offensive long after any rational hope of success had faded.

The battle also had international reverberations. The heroism of the French defenders, widely reported in the global press, stirred sympathy for the Allied cause, particularly in the United States. The exploits of the Lafayette Escadrille, American volunteers flying for France, captured the public imagination and helped to shape perceptions of the war as a struggle between democracy and autocracy. The successful defense of Verdun in June and July 1916 demonstrated that Germany could be stopped, influencing American industrialists and politicians who had been hesitant to commit to the Allied side. This shift in opinion paved the way for greater material support and, eventually, U.S. entry into the war in April 1917.

Legacy and Modern Relevance: Echoes of Verdun

The legacy of Verdun extends far beyond the strategic outcomes of World War I. The battle exemplified the horrors of industrialized warfare—the impersonal destruction of artillery, the agony of poison gas, the squalor of trench life—and became a powerful symbol of the futility and waste of war. This perception was reinforced by the post-war memorials built on the battlefield, most notably the Douaumont Ossuary, which contains the remains of 130,000 unidentified French and German soldiers. The site serves as a poignant reminder of the shared suffering of both nations and a call for reconciliation.

In military terms, Verdun highlighted the evolving nature of warfare in the 20th century. It demonstrated the importance of logistics, morale, and defensive depth, lessons that would be studied and applied in subsequent conflicts. The battle also underscored the limitations of attritional strategies and the catastrophic human cost of failing to adapt tactics to technological and operational realities. For the German Army, the experience at Verdun contributed to the development of infiltration tactics and stormtrooper units, which would be used with great effect in the 1918 Spring Offensive.

Today, Verdun remains a place of pilgrimage and reflection, attracting visitors from around the world who come to pay their respects and to ponder the lessons of the past. The preserved battlefield, with its forests still scarred by shells and its fields dotted with crumbling fortifications, stands as a testament to the resilience of the human spirit and the enduring hope for peace. In an era of renewed great-power competition and evolving military technologies, the story of Verdun serves as a cautionary tale about the dangers of unchecked aggression, the importance of strategic clarity, and the profound costs of war.

The battle’s influence can also be seen in the realm of literature and art, where it inspired works by authors such as Henri Barbusse and artists like François Flameng, whose stark depictions of the battlefield conveyed its horror to a global audience. These cultural artifacts ensure that the memory of Verdun, and the sacrifices made there, will not be forgotten.

In conclusion, the Battle of Verdun was more than a military engagement; it was a crucible that tested the limits of human endurance and shaped the course of the 20th century. Its outcome broke the German Empire’s hope for a quick victory on the Western Front, altered the trajectory of World War I, and left a legacy that continues to resonate in our collective memory. As we reflect on this epic struggle, we are reminded of the enduring values of courage, perseverance, and the relentless pursuit of peace.