The Rise of a Maritime Powerhouse

Zheng Chenggong, better known in the West as Koxinga, emerged during one of China’s most turbulent periods—the Ming-Qing transition. Born in 1624 to Zheng Zhilong, a powerful maritime merchant-pirate who controlled China’s southeastern coastal trade, and a Japanese mother, Koxinga inherited both his father’s naval expertise and his mother’s samurai-influenced discipline. This unique background would prove instrumental when the Ming dynasty collapsed in 1644, leaving loyalists like Koxinga to resist the conquering Qing forces.

By the 1650s, Koxinga had established himself as the preeminent Ming loyalist commander, operating from fortified island bases like Xiamen and Kinmen. His forces—a formidable mix of naval squadrons and amphibious troops—dominated the Taiwan Strait, making him the last major obstacle to complete Qing consolidation of China. However, after a failed 1659 campaign to recapture Nanjing, Koxinga made a strategic pivot that would alter East Asian history: he set his sights on Taiwan.

The Dutch Stronghold in Formosa

Dutch East India Company (VOC) forces had established themselves on Taiwan in 1624, building Fort Zeelandia on the sandy peninsula of Tayouan (modern Anping) and Fort Provintia in present-day Tainan. For nearly four decades, the VOC transformed Taiwan into a lucrative colonial enterprise:

– Exporting over 1 million deerskins annually to Japan by the 1630s
– Establishing sugarcane plantations worked by Chinese laborers
– Controlling the vital trade route between China and Japan

However, Dutch rule was brutal. They imposed heavy taxes on Chinese settlers and massacred indigenous villages that resisted, most notoriously in the 1635-36 slaughter of the Mattau and Soulang peoples. By 1660, Taiwan’s Chinese population had grown to about 25,000—many of whom secretly supported Koxinga’s planned invasion.

The Fateful War Council of 1661

In January 1661, Koxinga convened his commanders in Xiamen for what became one of history’s most consequential military debates. His proposal to attack Taiwan faced fierce resistance:

The Opposition
– Wu Hao warned of “Dutch cannons’ ferocity” and Taiwan’s “miasmic airs”
– Huang Ting doubted their ability to breach Fort Zeelandia’s defenses

The Supporters
– Ma Xin (a northern Chinese general) argued: “Even Sichuan’s cliffs can be scaled—surely we can outwit red-haired barbarians!”
– Chen Yonghua, Koxinga’s chief strategist, advocated reconnaissance in force

The clincher came from Yang Chaodong, who noted Taiwan could become “a base for revival, just as Liu Bei took Shu.” Koxinga seized this historical parallel to declare: “Yang’s words resolve all doubts!” The invasion was set.

Amphibious Masterstroke: The Invasion Unfolds

On April 30, 1661 (lunar March 23), Koxinga’s fleet of 400 warships and 25,000 troops departed Kinmen. His operational brilliance shone through key decisions:

Phase 1: The Penghu Pivot
After securing the Penghu Islands as a forward base, Koxinga timed his crossing to coincide with the spring tide—allowing his ships to bypass Dutch artillery by sailing through the shallow Luermen channel, guided by defector He Bin’s hydrographic intelligence.

Phase 2: The Battle of Baxemboy (May 1, 1661)
Dutch Governor Frederick Coyett sent 240 troops under Captain Thomas Pedel to repel the landing. Koxinga’s forces employed:
– 500 arquebusiers in frontal suppression
– 500 rattan-shield troops in flanking maneuvers
– Naval demonstrations to pin Dutch reserves

The result was catastrophic for the Dutch—118 killed including Pedel, their corpses strewn across the sandbar.

Phase 3: The Siege of Fort Provintia
Koxinga isolated the fort by:
– Mobilizing Chinese settlers to cut Dutch supply lines
– Using earthworks to neutralize artillery advantage
After a four-day siege, Dutch commander Valentyn surrendered on May 4.

The Nine-Month Siege of Fort Zeelandia

What followed was a masterclass in siege warfare. Koxinga’s strategies included:

Economic Warfare
– Blockaded the Taiwan Strait, preventing Dutch reinforcements
– Confiscated Dutch sugarcane fields to feed his troops

Psychological Operations
– Allowed Dutch women/children to leave the fort, demoralizing defenders
– Displayed captured Dutch standards to undermine morale

Military Innovation
When Dutch reinforcements arrived in August 1661, Koxinga:
– Used fire ships to scatter the relief fleet
– Constructed siege towers overlooking the fort

The final blow came in January 1662 when Koxinga’s troops captured the strategic Utrecht redoubt, positioning artillery to bombard Zeelandia’s weak inner walls. On February 1, 1662, Coyett surrendered.

The Legacy of a Pivotal Victory

Koxinga’s triumph reverberated globally:

Geopolitical Impact
– Ended Western colonialism in East Asia for 200 years
– Established the first Chinese government in Taiwan

Economic Transformation
– Introduced Confucian land registries replacing Dutch deeds
– Expanded rice cultivation, making Taiwan “the granary of the sea”

Cultural Renaissance
– Built Confucian academies like the first Tainan school
– Integrated Ming rituals with indigenous traditions

Modern Taiwan’s development—from its Hoklo-speaking majority to temple festivals honoring Koxinga—stems from this 1661-62 campaign. The strategic vision Koxinga displayed—combining naval power, intelligence networks, and psychological warfare—remains studied in military academies worldwide. His legacy endures as both a national hero and a symbol of cross-strait connections, proving that history’s greatest turns often come from leaders who, as Koxinga did, dare to “change course when the winds shift.”