Introduction: The Age of Qianlong’s Military Ambitions

The Qianlong Emperor (r. 1735–1796) presided over one of the most expansive and militarily active periods of China’s Qing Dynasty. By his late reign, he proudly declared himself the “Old Man of the Ten Complete Victories” (十全老人), immortalizing his decade-spanning military campaigns in a self-congratulatory essay, The Record of Ten Perfections (《十全记》). These campaigns—spanning from the deserts of Xinjiang to the jungles of Myanmar—cemented Qing control over vast territories but also revealed the empire’s logistical limits and the human cost of imperial ambition.

The Historical Context: Qing Expansion and Border Threats

The 18th century saw the Qing Dynasty at its territorial peak, yet frontier instability demanded constant military engagement. The empire faced challenges from Mongol tribes, Himalayan kingdoms, and Southeast Asian states, all while managing Han Chinese rebellions. Qianlong inherited his grandfather Kangxi’s legacy of expansion but pursued an even more aggressive consolidation of power. His “Ten Great Campaigns” (十全武功) were not merely defensive; they reflected a worldview where imperial prestige demanded unambiguous submission from peripheral regions.

Campaign 1 and 2: The Pacification of the Dzungars (1755–1757)

The Dzungar Khanate, a Mongol confederation in Central Asia, had long resisted Qing dominance. In 1745, internal strife erupted after the death of Dzungar leader Galdan Tseren. By 1755, Qianlong seized the opportunity, sending general Amursana to conquer Dzungaria. Initial success turned to betrayal when Amursana rebelled, prompting a brutal Qing counterattack. A smallpox epidemic devastated the Dzungars, enabling the Qing to annex Xinjiang by 1757—a campaign marked by scorched-earth tactics that nearly eradicated the Dzungar people.

Campaign 3: The Suppression of the Khoja Rebels (1757–1759)

Following the Dzungar collapse, Islamic leaders Khoja Jihan (大和卓) and Burhan-ud-Din (小和卓) rebelled in southern Xinjiang. Qing forces under General Zhao Hui crushed the revolt by 1759, with the Khojas executed by their former allies in Badakhshan. This victory solidified Qing rule over Xinjiang, leading to the establishment of the Ili Military Governorship in 1762—a system that endured until the dynasty’s fall.

Campaigns 4 and 5: The Costly Jinchuan Wars (1747–1776)

The twin Jinchuan campaigns in Sichuan province became a quagmire. The first war (1747–1749) saw the surrender of local chieftain Sonom after costly mountain warfare. The second (1771–1776) erupted when chieftains Sonom and Sengge Sang rebelled again. Despite deploying elite Manchu bannermen and European-style cannons, the Qing suffered heavy losses, including the death of commander Wenfu. Victory came only after five years, at a staggering cost of 70 million silver taels—equivalent to two years of imperial revenue.

Campaign 6: The Lin Shuangwen Rebellion in Taiwan (1787–1788)

Taiwan’s largest uprising, led by Lin Shuangwen of the Tiandihui (Heaven and Earth Society), exploited Qing neglect of the island. Lin’s forces seized northern Taiwan before being crushed by General Fukang’an. The rebellion exposed administrative weaknesses, prompting reforms but also brutal reprisals—Lin was publicly executed by “slow slicing” (lingchi) in Beijing.

Campaigns 7 and 8: The Burmese and Vietnamese Expeditions

The Burmese campaigns (1765–1769) ended in disaster: three successive Qing commanders died, and tropical diseases decimated troops. A face-saving “victory” was declared only after Myanmar’s nominal tribute in 1790. Similarly, the 1788 invasion of Vietnam to restore the Lê dynasty backfired when Nguyễn Huệ, the very ruler Qianlong sought to oust, later arrived in Beijing to receive imperial recognition—a diplomatic finesse masking military failure.

Campaigns 9 and 10: The Gurkha Wars (1788–1793)

Nepal’s Gurkha kingdom invaded Tibet in 1788 and 1791, exploiting Qing mismanagement. The second invasion saw Fukang’an lead a 70,000-strong army across the Himalayas—a logistical marvel—forcing Nepal’s surrender. The 1793 Imperial Regulations for Tibet reasserted Qing authority, introducing the Golden Urn system for Dalai Lama selection.

Cultural and Social Impacts: Glory and Suffering

Qianlong’s campaigns were immortalized in court paintings and The Ten Great Campaigns copper engravings, yet the human toll was staggering. The Jinchuan wars depopulated Sichuan, while Xinjiang’s conquest involved ethnic cleansing. Military spending drained the treasury, sowing seeds for the 19th-century fiscal crises. Conversely, these wars diversified the empire, integrating Tibet, Xinjiang, and Taiwan into a centralized administration.

Legacy and Modern Controversies

Modern historians debate Qianlong’s “perfect” record. While Xinjiang’s incorporation shaped China’s modern borders, campaigns like Jinchuan and Myanmar were wasteful. The emperor’s triumphalism ignored underlying governance flaws, leaving his successors a bloated, overstretched empire. Today, China’s territorial claims often invoke Qianlong’s conquests, revealing how 18th-century wars still echo in contemporary geopolitics.

Conclusion: The Myth and Reality of the Ten Perfections

Qianlong’s Ten Great Campaigns were as much about propaganda as power. They expanded the empire but also revealed its limits—military might could enforce submission, but not always sustain loyalty. The “Old Man of Ten Complete Victories” left a contested legacy: a unified multi-ethnic state built on the ashes of countless rebellions and the silver of a dwindling treasury. His wars remain a testament to ambition’s price, and to history’s habit of judging rulers not by their boasts, but by their consequences.

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