1789 stands as a monumental year, not only in French history but in the annals of global history. It was the year the French Revolution erupted—a seismic event that would shape the course of the 19th century and beyond. At the heart of this revolution was a profound question: On what foundation should human society be built? This query ignited a fierce debate across the French nation, challenging age-old privileges and demanding a new social order.
The Context of Crisis: France on the Eve of Revolution
As the calendar turned to January 1, 1789, France was a nation teetering on the brink. The country’s population, approximately 28 million, was still reeling from the devastating agricultural failures of 1788. These crop shortfalls triggered economic hardship and social unrest, exacerbating tensions in a society divided by rigid class structures.
The Ancien Régime, France’s old social order, was built upon a tripartite structure of estates or classes: the First Estate . The Third Estate comprised roughly two-thirds of the population, including peasants, urban workers, and the burgeoning bourgeoisie. Yet, despite their numbers, they found themselves politically marginalized and economically burdened.
Against this backdrop of hardship and inequality, a vibrant political and philosophical debate emerged. On one side stood defenders of tradition, who upheld divine rights, hierarchical privileges, and guild controls. On the other side, inspired by Enlightenment ideals, were advocates for natural rights, reason, and justice. Central to this discourse was the demand for recognition and empowerment of the Third Estate.
The Voice of the Third Estate: Sieyès’s Influential Pamphlet
In early 1789, hundreds of anti-feudal pamphlets circulated throughout France, reflecting the widespread ferment of ideas. Among these, one pamphlet stood out for its clarity and impact: “What is the Third Estate?” written by Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès, a clergyman who had turned his back on his privileged position.
Sieyès’s pamphlet, published in January 1789, quickly became a manifesto for the Third Estate. Its succinct and powerful message captured the frustrations and aspirations of the common people. He declared, “What is the Third Estate? Everything. What has it been until now in the political order? Nothing. What does it demand? To become something.”
These words resonated deeply and spread rapidly, becoming a rallying cry in streets and salons alike. The pamphlet framed the Third Estate not as a subordinate class but as the foundation of the nation itself, deserving full political participation.
The Summoning of the Estates-General: A Historic Convention
The last meeting of the Estates-General had been in 1614, and the institution had lain dormant for 175 years. But in May 1789, King Louis XVI, under pressure from financial crises and social unrest, convened the Estates-General once again. This assembly was composed of representatives from each of the three estates.
From February onward, elections were held to select delegates. According to royal rules, representatives of the clergy and nobility were directly elected, while those of the Third Estate were chosen through a two-tiered electoral process. Alongside these elections, the king demanded that all estates submit cahiers de doléances, or lists of grievances, which provided a rich source of insight into the political and economic demands of different social groups.
More than 60,000 such cahiers survive, offering historians a vivid portrait of France on the verge of revolution. Reading these documents reveals stark divides: a profound legal and ideological chasm separated nobles and commoners, and there were sharp inequalities in taxation burdens.
The Paradox of Loyalty: Faith in the King Amidst Discontent
One striking feature of these grievances is the widespread loyalty to King Louis XVI, known as the “Locksmith King” for his attempts to unlock reforms. Despite their frustrations, many citizens viewed the monarch as enlightened and just. Some cahiers praised Louis as “the most enlightened, respectable, and excellent of kings,” even “the father of his people, the one who could bring new life to France.”
This loyalty was often expressed through criticism of royal ministers and advisors, perceived as corrupt or incompetent. The public discourse thus painted a dichotomy between a benevolent king and his misguided counselors, reflecting a complex relationship between ruler and ruled.
The Composition of the Estates-General: A Microcosm of French Society
When the Estates-General convened at Versailles on May 5, 1789, it brought together 1,139 representatives: 291 clergy, 270 nobility, and 578 from the Third Estate. Notably, nearly half of the Third Estate delegates were lawyers and other professionals adept at public speaking, with merchants and bankers also well represented. However, peasants and artisans found themselves unrepresented among the deputies.
Interestingly, the Third Estate also included some defectors from privileged ranks, such as the noble Mirabeau and the clergyman Sieyès himself. Although unassuming in appearance, these men would become key voices in the revolutionary movement, with Mirabeau known for his oratory and Sieyès for his incisive ideas.
The Opening of the Estates-General: A Moment Charged with Expectation
On the morning of May 5, Versailles was abuzz with anticipation. From 9 a.m., the 1,139 delegates were ushered into the Hall of Games under strict supervision. By 11:45 a.m., all were seated, and at 1 p.m., King Louis XVI entered to cheers.
In his opening speech, the king expressed hope that the meeting would resolve France’s deep problems. However, underlying tensions soon surfaced. The method of voting—by order or by headcount—became a point of contention. The First and Second Estates favored voting by order, which preserved their dominance despite being a minority. The Third Estate demanded voting by headcount, which would give them a numerical advantage.
The Birth of a Revolutionary Movement: From Estates-General to National Assembly
The initial meetings revealed the irreconcilable differences between the estates. Frustrated by their marginalization, on June 17, 1789, the Third Estate declared itself the National Assembly, claiming to represent the people of France. This bold move marked the beginning of a revolutionary break from the Ancien Régime.
Soon after, the famous Tennis Court Oath followed, where the National Assembly vowed not to disband until they had drafted a constitution for France. This act of defiance set in motion a chain of events—the storming of the Bastille, the abolition of feudal privileges, and the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen—that would transform France and inspire revolutionary movements worldwide.
The Historical Legacy of the Third Estate’s Assertion
The assertion that the Third Estate was “everything” reverberated far beyond 1789. It challenged entrenched hierarchies, asserting the primacy of the common people in shaping their destiny. This idea influenced the development of modern democracy, citizenship, and human rights.
Moreover, the French Revolution ignited by these events reshaped political ideologies, mobilized masses across Europe, and questioned the divine right and privileges of monarchy and nobility. It also exposed the power of ideas and collective action in redefining society.
Conclusion: 1789 and the Enduring Impact of the Third Estate
The year 1789 was a pivotal moment when centuries-old structures began to crumble under the weight of popular demands for equality, justice, and representation. The Third Estate, once marginalized and ignored, declared itself the foundation of the nation and demanded a voice in governance.
This transformative moment captured in Sieyès’s pamphlet and the Estates-General’s convocation was not merely a French phenomenon but a global turning point. It symbolized the rise of the modern political consciousness and the enduring struggle for human dignity and rights.
The echoes of 1789 continue to inspire movements for democracy and social justice worldwide, reminding us that when the many recognize their power, history itself is reshaped.