The Historical Context Behind a Legendary Document

In the year 227 AD, as the Shu Han kingdom faced existential threats from rival states, Chancellor Zhuge Liang prepared to lead his northern campaign from Hanzhong. Before departing, he composed what would become one of China’s most celebrated political documents – the “Chu Shi Biao” or “Memorial on the Expedition.” This remarkable text, written to the young Emperor Liu Shan, transcended its immediate military purpose to become a timeless manifesto on governance, loyalty, and statecraft during turbulent times.

The Three Kingdoms period (220-280 AD) represented one of China’s most fractious eras, following the collapse of the Han dynasty. The Shu Han kingdom, founded by Liu Bei in 221 AD, controlled the southwestern region around Sichuan but faced constant pressure from the more powerful Wei kingdom to the north. Zhuge Liang’s memorial emerged at a critical juncture – five years after the disastrous Battle of Xiaoting (known as the “Yiling Catastrophe”), where Liu Bei’s forces suffered devastating losses against Wu forces, weakening Shu’s military capacity and morale.

Decoding the Eleven Principles of Governance

The memorial’s brilliance lies in its concise presentation of eleven essential governance principles within just 741 characters. Each section addresses specific concerns while collectively forming a comprehensive manual for ruling a vulnerable state.

The opening establishes the precarious situation: “The late emperor’s great enterprise remains unfinished… our land of Yizhou is exhausted.” Zhuge Liang reminds the young emperor that recovery from the Yiling defeat remains incomplete, emphasizing continued vigilance. This frank assessment sets the tone for the entire document – pragmatic yet hopeful, critical yet supportive.

Several passages focus on personnel management, recommending trusted advisors like Guo Youzhi, Fei Yi, and Dong Yun for palace affairs, and General Xiang Chong for military matters. These recommendations reveal Zhuge Liang’s understanding that institutional stability depends on competent officials rather than individual rulers. His advice to “consult them on all matters, great and small” demonstrates his commitment to establishing systems rather than cultivating personal power.

The Legal and Ethical Foundations of Shu Han

Central to the memorial is the principle of rule of law: “Rewards and punishments should not differ between the palace and the government offices.” Zhuge Liang stresses impartial justice as Shu’s foundational principle, crucial for maintaining unity in a state composed of diverse factions. This emphasis reflects Legalist influences blended with Confucian ideals – a hallmark of Zhuge Liang’s political philosophy.

The document draws powerful historical parallels, contrasting the Western Han’s prosperity under virtuous ministers with the Eastern Han’s decline due to corrupt eunuchs. By invoking Liu Bei’s frequent laments about the failures of Emperors Huan and Ling, Zhuge Liang connects present governance to broader historical patterns, urging the young emperor to learn from past mistakes.

Personal Loyalty and National Mission

Perhaps the most moving section recounts Zhuge Liang’s personal story: “I was originally a commoner, farming in Nanyang…” This account of Liu Bei’s three visits to his thatched cottage (the famous “Three Calls to the Cottage” story) establishes the deep personal bond between ruler and minister while justifying Zhuge Liang’s authority as both a moral and political obligation.

The memorial’s most famous declaration – “Han and traitors cannot coexist” – articulates Shu Han’s legitimizing ideology. Zhuge Liang frames the northern expedition not merely as military strategy but as a sacred mission to restore the Han dynasty, providing ideological justification for continued warfare despite Shu’s relative weakness.

A Father’s Farewell and a Strategist’s Precision

The concluding passages blend emotional vulnerability with administrative precision. Zhuge Liang accepts full responsibility for the campaign’s outcome while establishing clear accountability for other officials. His final words – “Now as I prepare to depart, writing this memorial through tears, I know not what I say” – reveal the human dimension behind the statesman, particularly poignant given that his newborn son Zhuge Zhan would grow up without his father’s presence.

The document’s structural brilliance lies in its perfect economy of language. Unlike ornate court documents of the period, every sentence serves a clear purpose – whether establishing policy, recommending personnel, or reinforcing ideology. This practical focus makes the memorial remarkably modern in its directness.

The Enduring Legacy of a Political Masterpiece

Zhuge Liang’s northern campaign ultimately proved unsuccessful, and he would die in 234 AD without realizing his dream of Han restoration. Yet the “Chu Shi Biao” transcended its immediate context to become a cultural touchstone. Its emphasis on meritocracy, rule of law, and ethical governance resonated throughout Chinese history, particularly during periods of national crisis.

The document’s lasting appeal stems from its unique combination of elements: clear political ideology (“Han and traitors cannot coexist”), practical governance manual (detailed personnel recommendations), emotional authenticity (the tearful farewell), and literary concision. It represents perhaps the purest expression of the “scholar-official” ideal – where intellectual rigor, administrative competence, and moral conviction unite in service to state and sovereign.

Why Shu Han Captures the Historical Imagination

The Shu Han kingdom’s disproportionate cultural impact, despite its brief existence and limited territory, owes much to figures like Zhuge Liang. The tragic narrative – from Guan Yu’s loss of Jing Province to Liu Bei’s disastrous retaliation and Zhuge Liang’s doomed but principled campaigns – creates powerful emotional resonance. The “Chu Shi Biao” crystallizes this narrative, embodying the Confucian ideal of unwavering loyalty against impossible odds.

Modern readers continue to find relevance in its lessons about leadership transition, crisis management, and institutional building. The document’s emphasis on systems over personalities, on laws over whims, speaks to universal challenges of governance. Zhuge Liang’s ability to balance frank assessment with respectful tone offers timeless lessons in delivering difficult truths to authority.

As long as societies value principled leadership, clear communication, and devotion to duty, Zhuge Liang’s “Chu Shi Biao” will remain required reading – not just as historical artifact, but as masterclass in leadership during turbulent times. Its 1,800-year endurance testifies to the power of ideas expressed with clarity, conviction, and compassion.