From Ming Loyalists to Manchu Allies

The Tong family’s origins trace back to Fushun in Liaodong during the Ming Dynasty, where they occupied a position within the Ming administrative system. Their transformation from Ming subjects to Manchu allies began when Nurhaci, the founding khan of the Later Jin dynasty , launched his campaign against Fushun. Tong Yangzhen, the family patriarch, made the fateful decision to switch allegiances and join the rising Manchu power. This defection followed that of his cousin Tong Yangxing, who had already pledged loyalty to Nurhaci. The Tong family’s strategic location in the contested borderlands between Ming China and the Manchu territories positioned them perfectly to play both sides during this turbulent period.

This era of transition occurred during the early 17th century, when the Ming Dynasty was showing signs of internal decay while the Manchu forces were gaining strength through superior military organization and leadership. The decision to abandon the Ming court reflected both practical considerations and perhaps foresight about the shifting balance of power in Northeast Asia. The Tong family’s defection represented a broader pattern of Han Chinese officials and military leaders joining the Manchu cause, bringing with them valuable knowledge of Ming military tactics, administration, and Chinese culture.

Military Service and Royal Connections

Tong Yangzhen’s defection to the Manchu cause proved costly when he and his eldest son Tong Fengnian were captured and executed by Ming forces. Despite this tragedy, the family’s fortunes continued through Tong Yangzhen’s second son, Tong Tulai , who would become a key military commander under Hong Taiji, Nurhaci’s successor. Tong Tulai distinguished himself by leading the Han Chinese artillery corps during the critical Song-Jin battles, demonstrating exceptional military prowess with the advanced European-style cannons that gave the Manchu forces a significant advantage.

Following the Manchu conquest of Beijing in 1644, Tong Tulai continued his military service under Dorgon, the Prince Rui, during campaigns against Southern Ming loyalists. His military achievements paved the way for the family’s social ascent, but their true breakthrough came when Tong Tulai’s daughter entered the imperial harem as a consort to the Shunzhi Emperor. She gave birth to the emperor’s third son, who would become the legendary Kangxi Emperor, one of China’s longest-reigning and most accomplished rulers. Though she died in her twenties, she was posthumously honored as Empress Xiaokangzhang, establishing the Tong family as imperial relatives.

The Rise of “Half the Court”

During the Kangxi reign, the Tong family reached unprecedented heights of influence, earning the nickname “Half the Court” due to their extensive control over official appointments and policy decisions. Kangxi’s special affection for his maternal relatives, particularly because of his mother’s early death, led him to transfer his filial devotion to his uncles and cousins. This emotional connection translated into extraordinary political influence that few families in Qing history would ever match.

The family’s official status underwent a significant transformation when Tong Tulai’s eldest son, Tong Guogang, petitioned to have the family reclassified from the Han Chinese Eight Banners to the Manchu Banners. They successfully argued that despite having lived within the Ming border walls at Fushun, they were originally from Northeast Asia and shared ethnic origins with the Manchu people. Kangxi approved their request, allowing them to join the prestigious Manchu Bordered Yellow Banner. This reclassification reflected the fluid nature of ethnic identity in the early Qing period, where banner affiliation represented political loyalty rather than strict ethnic categorization.

Diplomatic and Military Exploits

Tong Guogang’s career exemplified the Tong family’s multifaceted contributions to the Qing empire. In 1689, he served as a key negotiator alongside Songgotu during the Treaty of Nerchinsk negotiations with Russia, which established the border between the Qing and Russian empires and represented one of China’s first equal treaties with a European power. Contemporary accounts describe Tong Guogang as courageous and decisive during the difficult journey to Nerchinsk, where he personally led dangerous river crossings to boost morale among the delegation members.

His brother Tong Guowei occupied an even more privileged position, becoming both Kangxi’s uncle and father-in-law when his daughter married the emperor and eventually became Empress Xiaoyiren. This dual relationship created an extraordinary bond between the imperial family and the Tong clan. Tong Guowei held numerous high offices, including Interior Minister and Deliberative Council Minister, and played a crucial role in suppressing the Rebellion of the Three Feudatories by exposing the conspiracy of Wu Yingxiong, the son of rebel leader Wu Sangui.

Military Campaigns and Ultimate Sacrifice

The Tong brothers’ military careers reached their climax during the campaigns against Galdan Khan of the Dzungar Mongols. In 1690, both brothers accompanied Prince Yu during the Battle of Ulan Butung, where Tong Guogang met his end in particularly dramatic fashion. Accounts describe how he wore conspicuously bright armor that made him an obvious target, and he was struck in the face by enemy fire while courageously directing troops. His brother Tong Guowei subsequently led forces that flanked the enemy from the mountainside, avenging his brother’s death.

Tong Guogang’s death profoundly affected Kangxi, who was reportedly dissatisfied with the funeral oration prepared by the Hanlin Academy and composed his own tribute. Contemporary Jesuit accounts recorded the emperor’s personal involvement in mourning rituals, highlighting the special relationship between uncle and nephew. The funeral itself was an elaborate affair attended by imperial princes, high officials, and military commanders, with detailed descriptions preserved in the diaries of French Jesuit missionaries who had developed respect for Tong Guogang during their shared journey to Nerchinsk.

Personality and Political Style

Historical accounts depict Tong Guogang as possessing a particularly strong and sometimes difficult personality. His privileged position as both imperial relative and senior military commander made him fearless in expressing opinions, even when they contradicted the emperor’s views. Records indicate numerous instances where he insisted on official appointments against Kangxi’s preferences, sometimes to the point of having his recommendations physically thrown down by the frustrated emperor. Yet Kangxi’s devotion to family prevented him from taking stronger action against his uncle, revealing the emperor’s tendency to blend state affairs with personal relationships.

This characterization wasn’t universally positive. The Yongzheng Emperor, Kangxi’s successor, would later criticize Tong Guogang harshly, describing him as “eccentric by nature” and accusing him of improperly pressuring Kangxi to appoint his preferred candidates. The differing assessments reflect both changing political climates and the complex nature of Tong Guogang’s relationship with power—seen as heroic dedication by some and inappropriate arrogance by others.

Later Generations and Political Entanglements

Following Tong Guogang’s death, his brother Tong Guowei continued to serve in high positions until his retirement in 1704, though he remained in Beijing maintaining influence. In his later years, Tong Guowei became deeply involved in the contentious succession struggle among Kangxi’s sons, a political minefield that would eventually contribute to the family’s gradual decline from supreme influence. The succession dispute, which intensified after 1708, saw various political factions backing different imperial princes, with the Tong family’s involvement reflecting their continued political importance even as the Kangxi reign entered its final decades.

Enduring Legacy and Historical Significance

The Tong family’s extraordinary rise from borderland officials to imperial relatives represents a remarkable chapter in Qing history. Their story illuminates several important aspects of early Qing society: the fluidity of ethnic identities during the dynastic transition, the importance of military service in social advancement, and the complex interplay between imperial power and familial relationships. The “Half the Court” phenomenon demonstrated how a single family could achieve unprecedented influence through strategic marriages, military achievements, and careful political navigation.

Their legacy extends beyond mere political power. The Tong family’s involvement in critical events like the Treaty of Nerchinsk and campaigns against the Dzungars placed them at the center of Qing expansion and consolidation. Their relationship with European missionaries facilitated cultural exchange and left valuable historical records that provide modern scholars with insights into Qing court life and political dynamics.

The family’s eventual decline following the Kangxi reign illustrates the precarious nature of court favor and the dangers of excessive involvement in succession politics. Yet their century of influence left an indelible mark on Qing institutions, military organization, and political culture. The Tong clan’s story remains a compelling example of how individual families could shape the course of Chinese history through a combination of strategic calculation, military prowess, and fortunate marital connections.