A Precarious Throne: The Boy Emperor’s Ascent

When six-year-old Zaichun ascended the throne in 1861 as the Tongzhi Emperor, he inherited an empire in crisis. The Second Opium War had just concluded with the humiliating Treaty of Beijing, while the Taiping Rebellion (1850-1864) had devastated southern China, claiming millions of lives. This transitional period between the Taiping and Boxer movements presented a rare window for reform—one that would ultimately slip through the Qing Dynasty’s fingers.

The real power lay with the regency council led by his mother, Empress Dowager Cixi, and the reform-minded Prince Gong (Yixin). Their uneasy alliance, forged during the Xinyou Coup of 1861 that ousted conservative regents, created a fragile balance between progressive and traditional factions at court.

The Self-Strengthening Movement: Halfhearted Modernization

Facing Western military superiority demonstrated during the Opium Wars, Qing officials initiated the Tongzhi Restoration (1862-1874)—China’s first systematic attempt at modernization:

– Diplomatic Revolution: The 1861 establishment of the Zongli Yamen (总理衙门) marked China’s first foreign ministry, replacing the antiquated tributary system managed by the Board of Rites. This new institution handled everything from treaty negotiations to establishing modern arsenals.

– Eyes on the West: In 1866, 63-year-old official Bin Chun led China’s first government-sponsored mission to Europe. His 110-day tour documented railways, parliamentary systems, and industrial factories—revelations that challenged Sinocentric worldviews.

– Educational Reform: The Tongwen Guan (同文馆) language school in Beijing, founded in 1862, struggled to attract students until offering stipends equivalent to a county magistrate’s salary. Its curriculum expanded beyond translation to include international law and sciences.

– The First Study Abroad Program: Despite cultural resistance (including families requiring marriage promises to enroll sons), 120 boys aged 12-16 were sent to America between 1872-1875. Their premature recall in 1881—triggered by conservative outrage over Western haircuts and dancing—cut short what might have been a transformative intellectual exchange.

The Emperor’s Folly: Rebuilding the Old While Ignoring the New

Upon assuming personal rule in 1873, the 18-year-old emperor made his sole significant policy decision: reconstructing the Old Summer Palace (Yuanming Yuan), destroyed by Anglo-French forces in 1860. This vanity project exposed deep fractures:

– Financial Recklessness: With the treasury drained by rebellions and indemnities, the court resorted to extorting “voluntary donations” from officials. Prince Gong’s 20,000-tael “contribution” set the coercive precedent.

– Political Backlash: When censor You Bai chuan dared oppose the project, Tongzhi ordered his dismissal. Only a united protest by ten senior statesmen—including the emperor’s uncles and tutors—forced abandonment of the scheme after a tearful intervention by Cixi.

A Reign Cut Short: The Mysterious Death of an Emperor

Tongzhi’s sudden death in 1875 spawned enduring controversies:

– Medical Enigma: Official records cite smallpox, but symptoms described by court officials like Weng Tong he (脓疮流盅) suggest advanced syphilis—possibly contracted during rumored incognito visits to brothels.

– A Tragic Household: The emperor’s marriage had become a proxy battle between Cixi and co-regent Ci’an. His chosen empress, Alute, endured persecution culminating in her alleged suicide 74 days post-Tongzhi’s death—possibly under Cixi’s veiled order to “follow the departed emperor.”

Legacy of Lost Potential

The Tongzhi era represents a pivotal crossroads where China’s leadership glimpsed modernization but lacked the will to fully embrace it. While the period saw:

– Industrial Foundations: Establishment of the Jiangnan Arsenal (1865) and Fuzhou Shipyard (1866)

– Diplomatic Firsts: Permanent foreign embassies and international law adoption

– Cultural Shifts: Gradual acceptance of Western science and technology

The reforms remained superficial, constrained by conservative opposition and distracted by symbolic gestures like palace reconstruction. The failure to institutionalize changes left China vulnerable to later crises, from the Sino-Japanese War (1894-95) to the eventual collapse of imperial rule.

As historian Yan Chongnian observes, the Qing Dynasty squandered five critical reform opportunities—with the Tongzhi Restoration being perhaps the most consequential missed chance to reconcile tradition with modernity on China’s own terms. The teenage emperor’s abbreviated reign thus serves as a poignant metaphor for a dynasty that flirted with transformation but could not escape its ossified past.