The Fractured Court of the Longwu Emperor

The Southern Ming dynasty’s Longwu regime (1645-1646) emerged during one of China’s most turbulent periods, as the Ming empire crumbled before the advancing Qing forces. Emperor Longwu, whose reign name was Zhu Yujian, ascended the throne in Fuzhou with genuine aspirations to restore Ming authority. However, his court was fatally divided between two factions: the emperor’s loyal scholar-officials and the powerful military leader Zheng Zhilong, who controlled the coastal provinces’ formidable naval forces.

Zheng Zhilong, a former pirate turned Ming admiral, commanded the largest military force in the region but showed little enthusiasm for confronting the Qing armies. His priorities lay in preserving his personal power base rather than supporting the emperor’s restoration efforts. This growing rift between the idealistic emperor and the pragmatic admiral created a toxic political environment where military decisions became entangled with personal ambitions.

Huang Daozhou’s Fateful Decision

Into this volatile situation stepped Huang Daozhou, the Chief Grand Secretary and one of the Ming dynasty’s most respected scholar-officials. A renowned calligrapher, philosopher, and loyalist, Huang watched with increasing frustration as Zheng Zhilong’s obstructionism paralyzed the court. Despite being in his sixties and lacking military experience, Huang made the extraordinary decision to personally lead an expedition to relieve Ming loyalists in Jiangxi and Anhui provinces.

Historical records from Li Shixiong’s letters reveal the almost impossible circumstances Huang faced: “Your expedition recruited just 3,000 commoners, with provisions not from the state treasury but donated by your students and old friends – this was but momentary righteous excitement.” The court provided only blank commissions to raise funds, essentially sending Huang to war with nothing but his reputation.

The Ill-Fated Expedition

In July 1645, Huang set out with his makeshift army, accompanied by Zhao Shichao as military supervisor. Zheng Zhilong, secretly pleased to see his political rival depart, deliberately withheld proper troops and provided only one month’s worth of supplies. As the expedition progressed, Huang resorted to writing personalized commissions with his celebrated calligraphy to recruit local volunteers – a poignant testament to both his dedication and the expedition’s desperate circumstances.

Among Huang’s officers was a young man named Shi Lang (later known as Shi Lang the naval commander), who recognized the expedition’s doomed prospects. Shi proposed abandoning the unwieldy force and taking a small elite group to rally proper Ming forces in Guangdong and Guangxi. Huang, however, overestimated both his military capabilities and the popular support he expected to receive. His refusal led Shi Lang to abandon the campaign – a decision that would later prove wise when Shi became one of the Qing dynasty’s most successful admirals.

Military Disaster at Mingtangli

By the time Huang’s force reached Huizhou, the situation had deteriorated beyond recovery. The loyalist leader Jin Sheng had already been captured, though Huang only learned this when their forces were separated by a single mountain range – a damning indictment of his military intelligence. Retreating into Jiangxi province, Huang attempted unsuccessfully to persuade the Qing-appointed governor Jin Shengheng to defect.

The final tragedy unfolded on December 25, 1645, at Mingtangli in Wuyuan county. Qing forces under General Zhang Tianlu surrounded Huang’s depleted army in a three-pronged attack. Over a thousand of Huang’s volunteers perished in the battle, with the survivors scattering. Huang and several key officers, including Zhao Shichao, were captured by Hu Maozhen’s troops.

Martyrdom and Legacy

After being transported to Nanjing in February 1646, Huang Daozhou faced interrogation by Hong Chengchou, the Ming turncoat now serving the Qing. Despite Hong’s attempts to persuade him to surrender, Huang remained steadfast. On March 5, 1646, the Qing executed this last great scholar of the Ming, cementing his status as a martyr.

Emperor Longwu, upon hearing of Huang’s death, posthumously honored him as Count of Wenming with the reverential title “Zhonglie” (Loyal and Ardent). This tragic episode became emblematic of the Southern Ming’s doomed resistance – where sincere loyalty and scholarly virtue proved no match for military reality and political betrayal.

The campaign’s failure exposed several critical weaknesses of the Southern Ming: the fatal divide between civil and military leadership, the lack of professional soldiers, and the unrealistic expectations placed on scholar-officials to perform military roles. Huang Daozhou’s sacrifice, while noble, underscored the Ming loyalists’ fundamental inability to organize effective resistance against the disciplined Qing war machine.

Modern historians continue to debate Huang Daozhou’s decisions. Some view his campaign as quixotic and poorly conceived, while others celebrate it as the ultimate expression of Confucian loyalty. What remains undeniable is that his story captures the profound tragedy of the Ming-Qing transition – where principle collided with power, and scholarship faced the sword.