Introduction: An Era of Imperial Decline

The mid-19th century represented one of the most challenging periods in China’s long history. As the Qing Dynasty approached its third century of rule, it faced unprecedented internal rebellion and foreign invasion. Against this backdrop of crisis, the imperial household became a stage for personal ambitions, tragic destinies, and extraordinary political maneuvering. The story of Emperor Xianfeng’s consorts—particularly the two women who would become known as Empress Dowagers Cixi and Ci’an—reveals much about the complex interplay between personal fate and historical forces during China’s turbulent transition into the modern era.

The Short-Lived First Empress: Xiaodexian

Before ascending the throne, the man who would become Emperor Xianfeng had taken a principal wife from the Sakda clan in 1847, during the 27th year of the Daoguang Emperor’s reign. This union followed established imperial protocols for succession candidates, ensuring the continuity of the royal lineage. Tragically, this first wife’s life was cut short in December 1849, merely one year before her husband would assume the dragon throne. Had she survived just twelve months longer, she would have been formally installed as empress rather than receiving the posthumous title of Empress Xiaodexian. Her early death exemplifies the cruel whims of fate that often determined women’s positions in the rigid hierarchy of the Qing court, where timing could mean the difference between historical obscurity and imperial prominence.

The Rise of the Two Empresses

Following his accession in 1850, Xianfeng needed to establish his household with appropriate consorts. His principal empress during his reign was Empress Xiaozhenxian, from the Niohuru clan. Her background was relatively modest by imperial standards—her father served as a circuit intendant in Guangxi province, a mid-level bureaucratic position. She had originally entered the household as a secondary consort when Xianfeng was still a prince. Her rapid elevation through the ranks—from Noble Consort Zhen in 1852 to imperial consort and finally to empress—demonstrated both Xianfeng’s favor and her own political acumen. History would remember her better as Empress Dowager Ci’an.

The other significant woman in Xianfeng’s life entered the palace through the imperial selection process in 1851. This was the Yehenara clan daughter who would become known to history as Empress Dowager Cixi. Remarkably, her father also held the position of circuit intendant, illustrating how middle-ranking officials could gain imperial connections through their daughters. Initially entering the palace as Noble Lady Yi, she received promotion to Consort Yi after three years. Her fortunes changed dramatically in March 1856 when she gave birth to Xianfeng’s son, Zaichun. This achievement earned her elevation to Imperial Consort Yi the following year. Most significantly, her son would remain Xianfeng’s only surviving male heir, positioning him as the inevitable successor to the throne.

Escape to Rehe and Imperial Succession

The year 1860 brought crisis to the Qing Empire as Anglo-French forces advanced on Beijing. Emperor Xianfeng fled to the imperial retreat at Rehe, accompanied by both his empress and Imperial Consort Yi. This retreat symbolized the dynasty’s weakness in the face of foreign military technology and tactics. The following year, Xianfeng died, leaving the throne to his five-year-old son. This succession occurred amid what historians would later call the “century of humiliation,” with foreign powers controlling Beijing and the Taiping Rebellion threatening the southern heartland.

The decision to pass the throne to a young child rather than an adult regent reflected Xianfeng’s personal preferences rather than state necessity. With the new emperor being a minor, his mother . Although both held the title of empress dowager, a clear hierarchy existed—Ci’an held superior status despite Cixi being the emperor’s birth mother. In court politics, Ci’an took precedence in all formal arrangements.

The Xinyou Coup and New Power Structure

The two empress dowagers soon allied with Prince Gong , Xianfeng’s brother who had remained in Beijing to negotiate with the foreign powers. Together they orchestrated what became known as the Xinyou Coup or Qixiang Coup of 1861, overthrowing the eight regents that Xianfeng had appointed on his deathbed. The three principal regents—Sushun, Zaiyuan, and Duanhua—were executed, while others were dismissed from their positions. Prince Gong became Prince-Regent.

This dramatic political reorganization stemmed from dissatisfaction with Xianfeng’s arrangements. Prince Gong had effectively saved the dynasty by negotiating the Convention of Beijing, which though humiliating in its terms, had secured the withdrawal of foreign troops from the capital. Despite this service, he had been excluded from both the succession and the regency council. The coup represented a correction of this perceived injustice while serving the ambitions of the two dowagers and Prince Gong himself.

The new power structure featured the unprecedented arrangement of empress dowagers ruling from behind screens while Prince Gong handled daily administration. This system violated Qing traditions—previous child emperors like Shunzhi and Kangxi had been guided by regents rather than their mothers. The dowagers acknowledged this break with precedent in an edict issued in the young emperor’s name: “Ruling from behind screens is not what we desired, but because current affairs are difficult and the imperial ministers need direction, we have reluctantly agreed to these requests. When the emperor completes his studies, we will return governance to him.”

This professed reluctance was largely ceremonial—the women had risked much to seize power and showed little intention of surrendering it voluntarily. The actual governance process involved ministers presenting memorials to the dowagers, who would review them before Prince Gong and the Grand Council drafted edicts. These would be presented the next day for approval and stamped with two seals—”Yushang” for Ci’an and “Tongdaotang” for Cixi—representing their joint exercise of imperial authority on behalf of the child emperor.

The Tongzhi Restoration and Continued Rule

The period that followed, known as the Tongzhi Restoration, saw efforts to strengthen the dynasty through modernization and reform. The joint rule of the dowagers and Prince Gong managed to suppress the Taiping Rebellion and initiate China’s first modernization movements, known as the Self-Strengthening Movement. Despite external pressures and internal challenges, the Qing dynasty demonstrated remarkable resilience, due in no small part to the political arrangement that had emerged from the coup.

Another Succession Crisis

The political settlement faced renewed crisis when the Tongzhi Emperor died unexpectedly in 1874 at just nineteen years of age. With no direct heir—though rumors suggested his consort might be pregnant—the succession required immediate resolution. Following Qing tradition, the throne should have passed to the next generation of the imperial clan. However, no suitable candidate from the appropriate generation was available, leading to another controversial decision.

The dowagers selected Zaitian, the three-year-old son of Prince Chun , who would reign as the Guangxu Emperor. This choice reflected several considerations: firstly, the child’s mother was Cixi’s younger sister, creating a familial connection; secondly, his young age ensured the dowagers could continue their regency; and thirdly, it bypassed more logical candidates like Prince Gong’s sixteen-year-old son, who would have been old enough to rule independently. The selection demonstrated the dowagers’ determination to maintain power rather than follow strict succession protocols.

The An Dehai Incident: Tensions Between the Dowagers

During the Tongzhi reign, a significant incident revealed the underlying tensions between the two dowagers. An Dehai, Cixi’s favorite eunuch, traveled south along the Grand Canal under the pretext of procuring dragon robes for the emperor’s wedding. His extravagant journey violated palace protocols regarding eunuchs leaving the capital. When he reached Shandong province, the county magistrate arrested him and sent him to the provincial governor.

This arrest was not merely about punishing a violating eunuch—it represented a calculated move by Ci’an and Prince Gong to check Cixi’s growing influence. They secretly instructed the governor to execute An Dehai, which he promptly did. This incident demonstrated that despite their collaborative rule, tensions and power struggles persisted between the two dowagers and their allies.

Legacy and Historical Significance

The story of Xianfeng’s empresses reflects broader themes in late Qing history. Their rise from relatively modest backgrounds to positions of ultimate authority illustrates how the imperial system could occasionally permit social mobility, at least within elite circles. Their political partnership, however uneasy, guided China through one of its most difficult periods and initiated the first serious attempts at modernization.

The system of joint rule by dowagers represented both an innovation in Qing governance and a response to extraordinary circumstances. While violating traditional protocols, it provided stability during a prolonged crisis. The dowagers’ determination to maintain power through the selection of another child emperor in 1875 ensured their continued influence but also set the stage for future conflicts during the Guangxu reign.

Historians continue to debate the legacy of these remarkable women. Some view them as conservative obstacles to necessary reform, while others recognize their achievement in preserving the dynasty against overwhelming challenges. What remains undeniable is their extraordinary political skill in navigating the treacherous waters of late Qing politics, maintaining power despite their gender and the numerous crises that threatened to destroy the empire they governed.

Their story represents not just personal ambition but also the adaptive capacity of traditional political systems when faced with unprecedented challenges. The empresses dowager of the late Qing created a new model of female leadership that would influence Chinese politics until the dynasty’s final collapse in 1911, leaving a complex legacy that continues to fascinate historians and general readers alike.