The Collapse of the Southern Ming Dynasty

The mid-17th century marked the death throes of China’s Ming Dynasty as Manchu forces swept southward, establishing the Qing Dynasty. Amid the chaos, the Yongli Emperor, Zhu Youlang, became the last hope for Ming loyalists. By 1659, Qing armies under Wu Sangui had overrun Yunnan, forcing the emperor and his court to flee into the rugged borderlands. Their desperate retreat into Burma (modern-day Myanmar) was not merely a geographical escape but a symbolic last stand for a dying regime.

Zhu Youlang’s supporters, led by generals like Li Dingguo and Bai Wenxuan, fought a guerrilla resistance along the frontier. However, the disastrous defeat at the Battle of Mopan Mountain shattered their cohesion. As the emperor crossed into Burmese territory, his protectors—generals Jin Tongwu and Liang Jie—faced an agonizing choice: follow their sovereign into disarmed exile or regroup with Li Dingguo’s forces. They chose the latter, retreating southward through Tongbi Pass.

The Failed Rescue Missions

### Bai Wenxuan’s Campaign

In early 1660, Bai Wenxuan, the Prince of Gongchang, led troops through treacherous terrain to reunite with Li Dingguo at Mubang. Both leaders feared that the emperor’s exile would demoralize remaining Ming forces scattered across Yunnan, Guizhou, and Sichuan. Determined to retrieve Zhu Youlang, Bai advanced into Burmese territory near Yonghui.

Miscommunication proved fatal. Burmese officials, dismissive of the Ming remnants, murdered Bai’s envoys. When Burmese cavalry attempted to loot Bai’s horses, his furious counterattack routed their forces at the riverbank. Despite this victory, Bai hesitated to assault Ava (the Burmese capital), fearing reprisals against the captive emperor. Pressured by Burmese authorities, Zhu Youlang—unaware of Bai’s intentions—issued an edict ordering retreat. Bai obeyed, withdrawing in bitter disappointment.

### Gao Wengui and Wu Zisheng’s Effort

Months later, generals Gao Wengui and Wu Zisheng attempted a separate rescue via the emperor’s original route. Blocked by Burmese troops, they fought their way to Manmo but were again thwarted by another royal edict. Gao, heartbroken, died shortly after; Wu retreated under protest. The Yongli court, now dominated by sycophants like Ma Jixiang, even authorized Burmese forces to attack future Ming rescuers—a shocking betrayal of loyalist efforts.

The Desperation of Exile

By 1661, conditions in Ava deteriorated. Zhu Youlang’s court lived under virtual house arrest. A plot by Mu Tianbo and Wang Qilong to overthrow pro-Qing collaborators was foiled, sealing the emperor’s fate. Meanwhile, Li Dingguo and Bai Wenxuan maintained sporadic contact with Zheng Chenggong (Koxinga) in Taiwan, clinging to hope.

The final attempt came through secret envoy Li Weizuo, who smuggled edicts in hollowed-out staffs. His daring mission secured promises of a coordinated rescue, but by November 1661, the Burmese had handed Zhu Youlang to Qing forces. Li’s plan to intercept the prisoner convoy failed when the Qing opted for immediate execution in Kunming.

Legacy of a Lost Cause

The Yongli Emperor’s flight into Burma represents more than a military defeat; it encapsulates the tragic resilience of Ming loyalism. Li Dingguo and Bai Wenxuan’s campaigns—though unsuccessful—highlighted unwavering devotion to a crumbling dynasty. Culturally, their resistance became romanticized in folklore, symbolizing the struggle against foreign domination.

Modern historians debate whether Zhu Youlang’s passive reliance on Burmese “protection” hastened the Ming’s collapse. Yet his story endures as a poignant chapter in China’s dynastic transitions—a tale of exile, betrayal, and the unyielding defiance of those who refused to surrender.