The Decline of Aristocratic Marriage Barriers

Prior to the Song Dynasty (960-1279), Chinese society maintained strict hierarchical divisions between scholar-official families (shi) and commoners (shu). As noted by Song scholar Zheng Qiao, the Tang Dynasty and earlier periods enforced rigid marriage customs where “official selections relied on genealogical records, and family marriages depended on pedigree books.” These practices reinforced social stratification, ensuring “the noble maintained constant dignity while the lowly kept their inferior status.”

The collapse of the Tang Dynasty and the chaotic Five Dynasties period (907-960) shattered this system. By the Song era, as Zheng observed, “selecting officials no longer considered family background, and marriages no longer valued aristocratic lineage.” The civil examination system enabled talented commoners to enter the scholar-official class, dissolving traditional marriage barriers. This shift marked a profound societal transformation where capital and merit began outweighing hereditary status in social mobility.

The Rise of Wealth-Based Marriages

Accompanying this change was the Song’s commercial revolution, which reshaped social values. Scholar-official Cai Xiang criticized the new trend: “Contemporary customs disregard family status in marriage, seeking only wealth based on financial capacity.” Colleague Zheng Zhidao similarly lamented brides being chosen for dowries rather than virtue.

Even high officials participated in this materialism. During Emperor Shenzong’s reign, a mid-level official schemed to inherit a widow’s property by cohabiting with her. More scandalously, in 1002, two chief councilors—Xiang Minzhong and Zhang Qixian—publicly fought in court over marrying the wealthy widow Lady Chai. As neo-Confucianist Cheng Yi bluntly stated, they coveted her “100,000-strings worth of assets.” Both ministers were demoted for their disgraceful conduct, revealing surprising social flexibility in what’s often misperceived as a conservative era.

The “Groom Snatching” Phenomenon

The most vivid manifestation of this new marital economy was bangxia zhuoxu—wealthy families “snatching grooms” at examination result announcements. Merchant families offered staggering sums to newly minted jinshi degree-holders. As Zhu Yu’s Pingzhou Ketan records:

“Recently, vulgar rich merchants and families with hidden wealth seek sons-in-law at the examination lists, baiting scholars with money to make them submit—some offering over 1,000 strings per groom.”

One anecdote tells of a handsome top graduate forcibly taken to a mansion, where a gold-robed host proposed his daughter’s hand. The trapped scholar humorously replied: “This humble man is honored by your noble family’s offer, but may I consult my current wife first?” The crowd erupted in laughter at his predicament. While showcasing merchant eagerness to ally with scholar-officials, this practice was only possible because Song society had abandoned earlier class restrictions.

Women’s Property Rights and Autonomy

Contrary to assumptions about declining female status, Song women enjoyed remarkable legal and economic autonomy:

### Dowry as Protected Property

Song law mandated daughters receive half a son’s inheritance share as lianchan (dowry assets). These remained the wife’s property after marriage—unlike later dynasties where they reverted to the husband’s family. Legal cases show widows successfully reclaiming dowries, with betrothal contracts serving as prenuptial agreements.

Notable examples include:
– A grand tutor giving his daughter 500 acres and 100,000 strings
– A commoner receiving 120 mu of farmland
– Typical dowries averaging 10+ acres

### Divorce and Remarriage Rights

The Song recognized heli (mutual divorce), with women initiating separations for reasons including:
– Incompatibility (e.g., scholar obsessed with Su Shi’s writings neglected his wife)
– Poverty (wives abandoning destitute husbands)
– Abuse (a wife divorcing after her husband drunkenly insulted her father)

Legal protections included:
– Desertion: Women could remarry if husbands vanished for three years
– Non-support: Wives could leave indigent spouses
– Sexual assault: Women could divorce attackers among in-laws

Divorce certificates (fangqishu) from Dunhuang show remarkably amicable separations, wishing ex-spouses future happiness.

### Remarriage Without Stigma

Despite Cheng Yi’s famous “starvation is trivial compared to losing chastity” quote, remarriage flourished. Evidence includes:
– Yizhuang charity rules offering 30 strings for first marriages but 20 for remarriages (versus nothing for men’s second weddings)
– Imperial cases: Empress Liu (formerly a silversmith’s wife) and Empress Cao (whose first groom fled the wedding)
– Yijian Zhi records listing 61 remarriage cases (55 second weddings, 6 third marriages)

Even conservative judges upheld widows’ remarriage rights, dismissing relatives who objected.

Misconceptions About Footbinding

While often attributed to Song neo-Confucianism, footbinding:
– Originated in Tang courtesan culture (seen in poetry)
– Was opposed by Cheng Yi’s family and Zhu Xi’s disciples
– Initially created slender “fast mounting” feet rather than later broken-arch “lotus feet”
– Remained an elite aesthetic choice, not a universal practice

Education and Female Literacy

The Song’s educational boom benefited women through:
– Home tutoring: Daughters of scholars like Li Qingzhao received classical educations
– Private schools: Allowing girls to study alongside boys
– Cultural acceptance: “Women treasured talent” as a social ideal

Government schools charged minimal fees (1-2 coins daily), with university students receiving stipends. Remarkably, two girls attempted the童子科 child scholar exams.

Conclusion: A Society in Transition

The Song Dynasty witnessed a quiet revolution where:
– Wealth challenged hereditary privilege in marriage markets
– Women controlled property and initiated divorces
– Education created new opportunities across genders

These changes reflect early modernizing trends before later dynasties reimposed stricter controls. The era’s complexity defies simplistic “traditional” labels, revealing a society dynamically balancing commerce, ethics, and individual agency.