The Historical Origins and Evolution of the Scholar Class
In ancient Chinese society, the “shi” (士) originally represented the lowest stratum of the nobility. These individuals held a certain amount of land for sustenance and were educated in the “six arts” (rites, music, archery, charioteering, calligraphy, and mathematics), making them capable in both civil and military affairs. During wartime, they served as junior officers, while in peacetime, they acted as retainers to high-ranking officials.
By the late Spring and Autumn period (770–476 BCE), the upper nobility had become corrupt and incompetent, leaving only the shi class to preserve the traditional knowledge of the six arts. As economic and political reforms unfolded during the transition to the Warring States period (475–221 BCE), cultural and intellectual developments flourished, and the shi became increasingly active. Concurrently, various states sought administrative reforms, implementing bureaucratic systems that heightened the demand for shi. Consequently, a new class of shi emerged from the common populace, and the term gradually became synonymous with intellectuals.
Initially, only the nobility had access to education, which primarily focused on the six arts. Among these, rites, music, calligraphy, and mathematics served as tools of governance, while archery and charioteering had military training purposes. With the increasing need for shi due to economic and political changes, education also evolved, giving rise to the practice of private teaching.
Confucius and the Pioneering Tradition of Private Teaching
Confucius (551–479 BCE), active in the late Spring and Autumn period, was the first great educator and thinker to achieve significant success in private teaching. He transmitted the Classic of Poetry, Book of Documents, Book of Rites, Classic of Music, Book of Changes, and Spring and Autumn Annals to his disciples, providing his own interpretations. These texts were originally subjects of noble study, with the Spring and Autumn Annals serving as historical lessons for noble youth and the Book of Changes as a divination manual. Confucius reinterpreted these works in his teachings.
Adhering to the principle of “education without discrimination,” Confucius reportedly had three thousand disciples, seventy-two of whom mastered the six arts (Records of the Grand Historian, “Biography of Confucius”). The term “ru” (儒), originally referring to intellectuals knowledgeable in ritual and ceremonial practices, was embraced by Confucius, who instructed his disciples to become “ru.” For instance, he advised Zixia to “be a noble ru, not a petty one” (Analects, “Yong Ye”). Thus, Confucius became the founder of the Confucian school.
The Flourishing of Private Teaching and Philosophical Writing
By the transition to the Warring States period, Mozi (c. 470–391 BCE) emerged as another prominent private teacher, forming an organized group known as the Mohists. Both Confucianism and Mohism became dominant schools of thought. During the Warring States era, private teaching became a widespread practice, with almost all renowned scholars gathering disciples. For many intellectuals, studying under a master became a crucial pathway to official careers.
The Analects records the words and deeds of Confucius and his disciples, while the Mozi is a compilation of Mohist writings, including dialogues between Mozi and his key followers, essays on Mohist doctrines, and technical writings on defensive tactics. From this period onward, writing and philosophical discourse became the primary means of intellectual debate.
The demand for learning led to an increase in the transcription of ancient texts. Advances in silk production facilitated the use of silk alongside bamboo slips for writing, as silk was more convenient for copying, preserving, and transporting texts. The Mozi mentions “writing on bamboo and silk,” primarily referring to the historical records of states like Zhou, Yan, Song, and Qi. Many scholars of the time amassed extensive libraries. For instance, Mozi “traveled south to Wei with many books in his carriage” (Mozi, “Gui Yi”), and Hui Shi was said to have “five cartloads of books” (Zhuangzi, “Under Heaven”). The proliferation of book collections aided scholars in teaching, academic discussions, and writing.
The Rise of Commoners as High Officials and the Culture of Respecting Scholars
As states undertook political reforms, there was an urgent need to recruit talent from various fields. The primary targets of this recruitment were the shi. Ambitious rulers sought and honored so-called “worthy scholars” to serve them, while high-ranking ministers often recommended talented individuals to strengthen the state and enrich the military. Thus, during the early Warring States period, a trend emerged where commoners could rise to high office, and rulers respected and sought out scholars.
For example, when Marquis Wen of Wei (r. 445–396 BCE) implemented reforms, his minister Di Huang recommended five individuals—Yue Yang, Wu Qi, Li Ke, Ximen Bao, and Di Jiao—all of whom were appointed to important positions. Wei Chengzi recommended three others—Bu Zixia, Tian Zifang, and Duan Ganmu—whom Marquis Wen treated as teachers and friends (Lüshi Chunqiu, “Examining the Worthy”). Similarly, Duke Mu of Lu (r. 407–377 BCE) appointed the erudite Gong Yixiu as his chancellor (Records of the Grand Historian, “Biographies of Upright Officials”) and employed Ziliu and Zisi as ministers (Mencius, “Gaozi II”).
King Lie of Zhao (r. 399–387 BCE) promoted three individuals recommended by the lord of Fanwu to his chancellor, Gong Zhonglian: Niu Xu, Xun Xin, and Xu Yue. Duke Wei of Zhou (r. 440–367 BCE) selected Ning Yue, a farmer from Zhongmou, as his teacher. King Zhao of Yan (r. 311–279 BCE), seeking to revitalize his war-torn state, recruited talents and honored Guo Wei as his teacher.
In Qi, from the time of Duke Huan of Tian (r. 374–357 BCE), an academy was established at Jixia in the capital, Linzi, where scholars were hosted under the title of “grand master” (Xu Gan, Balanced Discourses, “On the Fall of States”). By the reigns of Kings Wei (r. 356–320 BCE) and Xuan (r. 319–301 BCE) of Qi, Jixia had over a thousand scholars, including famous figures like Chunyu Kun, Tian Pian, Jiezi, Huan Yuan, Song Jian, Shen Dao, and Zou Shi, collectively known as the “Jixia Scholars.” They were “all appointed as grand masters, provided with grand mansions on broad avenues to honor and favor them” (Records of the Grand Historian, “Biographies of Mencius and Xun Qing”). Later, Xun Kuang (Xunzi) also studied there. The Qin and Han dynasties’ system of appointing erudites (博士) originated from this practice.
The Culture of Persuasion and Patronage
Simultaneously, the practice of scholars traveling to persuade rulers became increasingly popular. An ordinary shi, through persuasion and gaining a ruler’s favor, could be promoted to high ministerial positions. For example, Shang Yang, originally a retainer of the Wei chancellor Gongshu Cuo, persuaded Duke Xiao of Qin (r. 361–338 BCE) and rose to the highest position of daliangzao. Similarly, Zhang Yi, a native of Wei, became chancellor under King Hui of Qin (r. 338–311 BCE), and Gan Mao, a retainer of the gatekeeper Shi Ju, became left chancellor under King Wu of Qin (r. 310–307 BCE). Fan Ju and Cai Ze also became chancellors of King Zhao of Qin (r. 306–251 BCE) through persuasion.
During the Warring States period, persuasion and study under a master were the two main paths for shi to enter official service, making these practices fashionable. Mencius reportedly “traveled with dozens of carriages and hundreds of followers, living off the hospitality of various lords” (Mencius, “Teng Wen Gong II”). Tian Pian in Qi also “supported a thousand followers.” Even Xu Xing, a proponent of agrarian ideals, had “dozens of disciples” when he went to the small state of Teng (Mencius, “Teng Wen Gong I”).
By the mid-Warring States period, powerful ministers in various states began patronizing shi as retainers. Notable patrons included Lord Mengchang of Qi (Tian Wen), Lord Pingyuan of Zhao (Zhao Sheng), Lord Xinling of Wei (Wei Wuji), Lord Chunshen of Chu (Huang Xie), and Marquis Wenxin of Qin (Lü Buwei), each supporting around three thousand retainers. These retainers included scholars from various schools, as well as individuals with unique skills, such as those who could mimic roosters or steal like dogs—the so-called “crowers and dog thieves.” These retainers often advised their patrons, traveled to persuade others, managed affairs, or wrote on their behalf. For instance, Lord Xinling compiled The Military Strategies of Lord Wei, and Lü Buwei compiled The Annals of Lü Buwei. Some retainers were even recommended for official positions.
The shi of the Warring States period were the most dynamic class in society.
The Emergence of “Zi” and “Fuzi” as Honorifics for Scholars and Teachers
Before the Spring and Autumn period, “zi” (子) was an honorific for high-ranking ministers under the Son of Heaven, such as Weizi and Jizi. By the early Spring and Autumn period, only a few high-ranking ministers of feudal lords were posthumously honored with “zi,” such as Ning Zhuangzi and Shi Qizi of Wei. By the mid-Spring and Autumn period, it became common for high-ranking ministers of feudal lords to be posthumously honored with “zi.” Although lower-ranking officials were not posthumously honored with “zi,” they were also addressed as “zi,” such as Zifuzi and Zijiazi.
By the transition to the Warring States period, as the social status of shi rose and private teaching and philosophical writing flourished, “zi” became an honorific for renowned scholars and teachers, such as Kongzi (Confucius) and Mozi. By the Warring States period, “zi” had become a general honorific for scholars.
In ancient times, “fuzi” (夫子) originally referred to military officers of various ranks. For example, King Wu of Zhou, when rallying his troops at Muye, addressed his officers (including commanders of thousands and hundreds) as “fuzi.” By the Spring and Autumn period, high-ranking ministers addressed each other as “zi” in person and used “fuzi” as an honorific when speaking of each other in private. By the transition to the Warring States period, with the rise of scholarly discipleship, “fuzi” began to be used as an honorific for teachers. Later, “fuzi” became more respectful than “zi.”
The Hundred Schools of Thought and the “Contention of a Hundred Schools”
During the great social transformations of the Warring States period, representatives of various schools, standing on different grounds, proposed different strategies for state-building and philosophical theories to maintain and develop the small-scale peasant economy and consolidate monarchical power based on this economy. This gave rise to the intellectual trend of the “contention of a hundred schools,” which promoted social change and cultural and academic development.
The various schools and factions engaged in mutual criticism and debate while also influencing one another. Within the same school, developments often led to changes and even divisions. Sima Tan of the early Western Han summarized the so-called “hundred schools” into six major schools: Yin-Yang, Confucianism, Mohism, School of Names, Legalism, and Daoism (Records of the Grand Historian, “Postface of the Grand Historian”). By the late Western Han, Liu Xin further categorized them into ten schools: Confucianism, Mohism, Daoism, School of Names, Legalism, Yin-Yang, Agrarianism, Political Strategists, Syncretism, and Minor Talks. Excluding the Minor Talks, which belonged to literature, the remaining nine were later called the “Nine Streams.” Among these, apart from the Political Strategists, who focused on alliances, the Syncretists, who synthesized various doctrines, and the Agrarians, who advocated “joint cultivation by rulers and people” and agricultural techniques, the most important in intellectual history were indeed the six schools: Confucianism, Mohism, Daoism, School of Names, Legalism, and Yin-Yang.
The Nine Streams and Ten Schools Originating from Royal Offices
The Bibliographical Treatise of the Book of Han states that the nine streams and ten schools originated from different royal offices. Confucianism originated from the Minister of Education, Mohism from the guardians of the ancestral temple, Daoism from the court historians, Legalism from the judicial officials, the School of Names from the ritual officials, the Political Strategists from the diplomatic officials, Agrarianism from the agricultural officials, the Yin-Yang school from the astronomical officials, the Minor Talks from the minor officials, and Syncretism from the advisory officials. This tracing of origins has some basis. Before Confucius, there were no private teaching facilities, and all traditional academic and cultural knowledge was held by the relevant government offices. From the late Spring and Autumn period to the Warring States period, the sudden rise of the nine streams and ten schools, proposing various ideals and reform plans, must have drawn their intellectual origins from these related royal offices.
For example, the Bibliographical Treatise states: “The Confucian school originated from the Minister of Education, assisting rulers in harmonizing Yin and Yang and promoting education.” The “Minister of Education” here refers to the Grand Tutor and Grand Protector of the Western Zhou, who could “assist rulers in harmonizing Yin and Yang and promoting education.” Confucian teachings, such as the Classic of Poetry, Book of Documents, Book of Rites, and Classic of Music, focused on the ways of Kings Wen and Wu and the Duke of Zhou—the methods by which the Grand Tutor and Grand Protector assisted rulers in “promoting education.” The Book of Documents compiled by Confucians, particularly the Zhou Documents, records how the Grand Tutor and Grand Protector assisted rulers in governance and “promoting education.” Since Confucianism originated from the Grand Tutor and Grand Protector, its outstanding talents often served as rulers’ “teachers” and “mentors.” The Records of the Grand Historian, “Biographies of Confucian Scholars,” states: “After Confucius’s death, his seventy disciples scattered among the feudal lords, the greatest becoming teachers and chancellors.” For instance, Zixia became the “teacher” of Marquis Wen of Wei and taught at Xihe. When Chancellor Gong Zhonglian of Zhao recommended Niu Xu to King Lie, “Niu Xu served King Lie with benevolence and righteousness, bound by the kingly way,” and thus “Niu Xu was appointed as teacher” (Records of the Grand Historian, “Hereditary House of Zhao”). This Niu Xu, who spoke of “benevolence” and the “kingly way,” was likely a Confucian.
Regarding Agrarianism, Chapter 2, Section 5, “The Rise of Agricultural Science,” has already discussed it. The Legalist doctrines of Li Kui, Wu Qi, Shen Buhai, and Shang Yang have been covered in Chapter 5, “The Reforms in Various States During the Early Warring States Period.” The military doctrines are explained in Chapter 7, Section 5, “The Study of Military Strategy and the Development of Military Science.” The strategies of the Political Strategists are detailed in Chapter 8, “Vertical and Horizontal Alliances and Changes in Annexation Wars.” As for The Annals of Lü Buwei, compiled by Lü Buwei and his retainers, it is discussed in Chapter 9, Section 3, “Lü Buwei and The Annals of Lü Buwei.” Therefore, this chapter focuses on the theories and doctrines of the main schools of Mohism, Daoism, Confucianism, Legalism, and the practitioners of esoteric arts.
Conclusion
The transformation of the shi class and the rise of private teaching and philosophical writing marked a significant intellectual and social development during the Warring States period. This era of “contention among a hundred schools of thought” laid the foundation for Chinese philosophical traditions and influenced the political and cultural landscape for centuries to come. The interplay between different schools, their adaptation to changing social needs, and their contributions to governance, ethics, and metaphysics remain a testament to the vibrancy of ancient Chinese thought.