The Historical Context of Sino-Russian Tensions
The Treaty of Nerchinsk (1689) temporarily halted Tsarist Russia’s expansion into China’s Amur River basin, but it did little to curb Moscow’s ambitions. Russian colonialists continued probing the undemarcated frontier in the Transbaikal region, exploiting political instability within the Qing Empire. Most provocatively, they supported the Dzungar Mongols—a faction led by the rebellious Galdan and his successor Tsewang Rabtan—in their separatist campaigns, aiming to destabilize China’s northwestern frontiers.
Even after the Qing suppressed these revolts, Russia persisted in territorial encroachment. Cossack cavalry established so-called “mounted patrol lines,” asserting that wherever Russian troops stationed themselves, the land became Russian territory. Through such tactics, Russia seized vast tracts south of Selenginsk and along the Onon River. Meanwhile, economic exploitation intensified. Between 1698 and 1718, ten official Russian caravans—some exceeding 800 members—flooded Beijing, exchanging Siberian furs for Chinese silvers, silks, and tea at staggering profits. One 1708 caravan netted 270,000 rubles, exposing Russia’s growing dependence on this trade.
The Breakdown of Diplomacy and Road to Negotiations
Frustrated by Russia’s refusal to demarcate borders despite decades of appeals, the Kangxi Emperor took drastic measures. In 1719, the Qing court banned Russian caravans from Beijing. Though trade briefly resumed after Ambassador Lev Izmailov’s 1720 mission, Russia’s continued subversion in Mongolia led the Yongzheng Emperor to sever all commercial ties in 1724.
This economic stranglehold forced Russia to the negotiating table. In 1725, Tsarina Catherine I appointed Count Sava Vladislavich-Raguzinsky as plenipotentiary envoy. His secret instructions revealed Russia’s true aims: securing trade privileges, acquiring strategic territories, and establishing permanent Orthodox missions as intelligence hubs.
The Treaty of Kyakhta: Terms and Consequences
After six months of contentious talks in Beijing (1726–1727), negotiations relocated to the border, where Russia massed troops to intimidate Qing delegates. The resulting Treaty of Kyakhta (1728) formalized three key arrangements:
1. Territorial Settlements:
The border followed the Treaty of Bura (1727), recognizing Russia’s illegal occupations in Mongolia while leaving the Uda River region disputed.
2. Trade Regulations:
Russia gained exclusive rights to send 200-merchant caravans to Beijing triennially, plus duty-free trade at Kyakhta—a privilege surpassing European rivals.
3. Religious and Espionage Provisions:
Russia established the Beijing Ecclesiastical Mission, embedding spies under clerical cover. The mission’s “students” like Iakinf Bichurin later spearheaded Russia’s Sinological espionage, smuggling 14,000 lbs of maps and forbidden texts to St. Petersburg.
Cultural Warfare and Lasting Impacts
The Orthodox Mission became Russia’s intelligence nerve center in China. Operatives like Bichurin compiled geopolitical manuals (Geography of China, History of Tibet), while bribing officials like Grand Secretary Maci for classified documents. Though Qing officials like Censor Heqing warned against these activities, lax enforcement allowed Russia to cultivate a generation of “China experts” who later guided its 19th-century expansion.
Modern scholarship acknowledges the treaty’s dual legacy: while stabilizing the Mongolia-Siberia border for a century, it institutionalized Russia’s economic and espionage networks in China—a blueprint for imperialist penetration that shaped Sino-Russian dynamics well into the 20th century. As historian Fyodor Martens noted, the mission served not faith, but “as an instrument to study China for the Russian government.” Its legacy endures in the strategic contours of Inner Asia today.