The Rise of Theodosius and the Unification of Rome
In 388 CE, Emperor Theodosius I stood at the pinnacle of power after a five-year civil war. His decisive victory over Magnus Maximus, the rebellious commander of Britain who had murdered Emperor Gratian, solidified his control over both the Eastern and Western Roman Empires. Though the young Valentinian II nominally ruled the West, real authority rested with Theodosius—proven when Valentinian had to seek his aid during uprisings in Britain and Gaul.
At 41, Theodosius arrived in Rome not as a sightseer but as a conqueror with a mission. Unlike previous emperors who marveled at the city’s grandeur, he marched straight to the Senate and posed a question that would alter history:
Should Rome worship Jupiter or Christ?
The Senate’s Fateful Decision
The stage had been set years earlier. In 384 CE, a heated debate between Symmachus, Rome’s prefect and defender of paganism, and Ambrose, the formidable Bishop of Milan, had foreshadowed this moment. By 388, Symmachus—though only 44—had retired from public life. The senators present, many sharing his aristocratic and pagan background, faced an ultimatum.
No records of the Senate’s deliberations survive—the tradition of publishing the Acta Senatus had long lapsed. Yet the outcome was inevitable: an overwhelming majority voted to abandon Jupiter, Rome’s supreme god for over a millennium, in favor of Christ. This marked the Senate’s surrender—the last bastion of polytheism—to Christianity after 1,411 years of pagan tradition.
One tragic figure emerged: a respected senator, possibly the presiding officer, chose suicide. Whether in protest or despair remains unknown. His death raises a profound question: Why did polytheists rarely become martyrs, unlike their Christian counterparts?
The Clash of Monotheism and Polytheism
The answer lies in the nature of their beliefs.
– Monotheism: Asserted exclusive truth, demanding universal conformity.
– Polytheism: Tolerated diverse beliefs, accepting coexistence.
As historian Jacob Burckhardt noted, had emperors from Constantine to Theodosius not enforced Christianity as the sole religion, Greco-Roman paganism might have endured.
The victory of Christianity exacted a cultural toll. Libraries—repositories of classical knowledge—were shuttered, including Rome’s 28 public collections. Texts celebrating pagan thought vanished, only to resurface centuries later during the Renaissance.
The End of an Era: Banning the Olympics
In 393 CE, Theodosius delivered another blow to paganism: the abolition of the Olympic Games. Founded in 776 BCE, the Olympics honored Zeus (Jupiter to the Romans). Their prohibition after 1,169 years symbolized the death knell of Greco-Roman tradition. Historians regard 393 as the year “Greek and Roman civilization formally ended.”
Ambrose and the Church’s Ascendancy
The real architect of Christianity’s triumph was Ambrose. A former governor turned bishop, he masterfully manipulated Theodosius, ensuring the Church’s supremacy over the state.
### The Jewish Synagogue Incident
When Christians burned a synagogue in Syria, Theodosius ordered restitution using church funds. Ambrose rebuked him publicly, forcing the emperor to rescind his decree. This established a precedent: non-Christians could no longer expect equal legal protection.
### The Massacre of Thessalonica
After a charioteer’s arrest sparked riots in 390, Theodosius’s troops slaughtered thousands. Ambrose excommunicated him, demanding public penance. For eight months, the emperor resisted—then knelt outside Milan’s cathedral, stripped of regalia, begging forgiveness. This humiliation foreshadowed the 11th-century “Walk to Canossa.”
Theodosius’s Legacy and the Empire’s Division
Theodosius died in 395 at 48, leaving the empire divided between his sons: Arcadius (East) and Honorius (West). This was no administrative split but a permanent fracture, heralding Rome’s decline.
Ambrose, ever the strategist, canonized Theodosius as “the Great”—a title previously reserved for Constantine. His reforms reshaped Christianity:
1. Doctrinal Warfare: Standardized methods to combat heresy.
2. Clergy Discipline: Elevated moral standards for priests.
3. Monastic Integration: Brought hermits under church authority.
4. Saints & Patronage: Invented “patron saints” to replace pagan deities, addressing everyday needs—from marital strife to lost keys.
By his death in 397, Ambrose had institutionalized sainthood, ensuring his own canonization as St. Ambrose.
Symmachus: The Last Pagan Voice
Symmachus, the defeated pagan senator, died five years after Ambrose. His tombstone, now tucked away in Rome’s Capitoline Museums, stands as a silent testament to a vanished world. Unlike Christian martyrs, he left no defiant last words—only the quiet dignity of a man who witnessed the end of an era.
Conclusion: The Dawn of Medieval Europe
Theodosius’s reign marked a tectonic shift. Christianity, once persecuted, now dictated imperial policy. The Senate’s surrender, the Olympics’ abolition, and Ambrose’s dominance over Theodosius heralded a new age—one where the Church, not the emperor, held ultimate authority.
As Rome split into East and West, the stage was set for the Middle Ages. The legacy of 388–395 CE endures: a cautionary tale of power, faith, and the irreversible tides of history.