The Fragile Stability of the Hongwu Reign

In the sixth year of Hongwu (1373), the newly established Ming dynasty under Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang gradually stabilized its rule after years of turbulence. The northern frontier remained volatile as Ming forces engaged in protracted struggles with the Northern Yuan remnants. This complex situation was particularly evident in the northwest regions documented in the “Records of Events,” where the Ming had to abandon most of Gansu but began consolidating control over Hezhou while successfully pacifying the Ü-Tsang region, demonstrating an assertive posture.

The strategic Ü-Tsang region became a focal point in February 1373 when Zhu Yuanzhang established military commanderies there, building upon the Dokham Guard created in 1371. This administrative framework incorporated two pacification commissions, one marshal’s office, four recruitment offices, thirteen myriarchies, and four chiliarchies. Notably, Zhu employed former Yuan officials and local monastic leaders, including the former Yuan Duke Namkha Gyaltsen as vice commander and the acting Imperial Preceptor Namkha Pelzang as “Radiant Precious State Preceptor.” The incorporation of Ü-Tsang eliminated southern threats to Hezhou, preventing a recurrence of the 1369 scenario when Tibetan forces allied with western tribes attacked Ming positions.

Military Campaigns and Frontier Administration

Simultaneously on February 8, Zhu implemented administrative reforms in Hezhou and Taozhou, establishing six chiliarchies, nine centurion posts, and seventeen tribal overseers – all staffed by former Yuan Mongol officials. These frontier garrisons represented unique elements within the Ming military system. Following Deng Yu’s 1370 capture of Hezhou (which controlled six Yuan-era marshalates), Zhu expanded northwestern administration in 1371 by appointing Hoja Namkha as Hezhou vice commander and creating eight subordinate chiliarchies. The 1373 measures completed this system, demonstrating Zhu’s consistent policy of “using western tribes to govern western lands” through local leaders with minimal central oversight.

However, this approach faced challenges after the 1372 Ming defeat in Mongolia, which destabilized the northwest. The subsequent Ming-Northern Yuan stalemate ultimately prompted major policy adjustments. Conflicts erupted almost immediately after Feng Sheng’s withdrawal, though records disagree on details. The “Veritable Records” and “Records of Events” present divergent accounts of a December 1373 campaign against the Yuan Prince Dörbed (Döchiba). The former describes two 1372-1373 operations led by Dörbed’s former subordinate Dorji Shikher, while the latter details a December 1373 night attack by Hezhou commander Xu Jing. Analysis suggests the “Records of Events” conflated dates, with the actual campaign occurring in November 1372 when Wei Zheng ordered Xu Jing and Dorji Shikher to attack Dörbed’s camp at Nuanzhou, forcing the prince to flee alone.

The Turning Point: Dörbed’s Submission

After further defeats in July 1373, Dörbed submitted in December, leading to the 1374 establishment of the Qining Guard to settle his followers. While significant, this contained latent instability that contributed to Dörbed’s 1376 rebellion. Multiple factors converged to undermine Ming control: dissatisfaction among northwestern tribes (evidenced by the July 1373 Taozhou plot), successful Ü-Tsang pacification (which alarmed other tribes), northern migration policies, and Northern Yuan instigation including the mysterious “Heling State Preceptor” who allegedly tried rallying anti-Ming resistance before being executed in 1374.

These pressures culminated in widespread uprisings between 1376-1378. The 1376 rebellion began with Dörbed’s revolt, followed by devastating campaigns against Chuanzang and Kandong led by Deng Yu in 1377. The crisis peaked in 1378 when mishandled local relations sparked the Taozhou Seven Stations rebellion, severing Ming-Ü-Tsang communications. Ming responses grew increasingly harsh – the 1377 Chuanzang campaign saw troops reaching the Kunlun Mountains (likely the Datong Mountains near today’s Tianjun County), slaughtering rebels and seizing hundreds of thousands of livestock.

Institutional Reforms and Their Consequences

Concurrently, Zhu implemented structural reforms that exacerbated tensions. The 1378 conversion of regional military commissions (duwei) into provincial commands (dusi) clarified hierarchies but reduced local autonomy. More impactful was Zhu’s 1376-1379 policy of dispatching princes to frontier posts, granting them substantial military authority that threatened tribal leaders. Prince Qin’s arrival in Shaanxi particularly alarmed former Yuan elites like Dörbed.

The 1378-1379 suppression campaigns, led by Mu Ying and Lan Yu, marked a policy shift from indirect to direct rule. After crushing the Seven Stations revolt, Zhu established the Taozhou Guard (staffed predominantly by Han officers) and reorganized Hezhou into a unified military-civilian command. The “Instructions to Li Wenzhong and Mu Ying” (1379) outlined this new approach: removing influential leaders, maintaining strong garrisons, and implementing “joint administration by natives and appointees.” While native officials remained, Han Chinese gained greater presence in northwestern administration.

The Centralization of Power: Abolishing the Secretariat

Parallel to frontier consolidation, Zhu dramatically centralized power through the 1380 abolition of the Secretariat following Chancellor Hu Weiyong’s alleged treason. What began as corruption charges in January 1380 escalated into a sweeping purge that by 1390 claimed over 15,000 lives according to Zhu’s own 1393 edict. The case eliminated potential rivals including Li Shanchang (the sole surviving early duke) while allowing Zhu to dismantle the traditional bureaucracy.

Zhu’s September 1380 reorganization created five chief military commissions and elevated six ministries directly under imperial control. Subsequent adjustments established the Censorate (duchayuan) and transmission offices (tongzhengshi si) to monitor officials. These changes fundamentally transformed Ming governance, though practical governance challenges led to interim solutions like the 1380-1381 “Four Assistants” system and 1382 grand academicians – precursors to the later Grand Secretariat.

Southern Expansion: The Yunnan Campaign

With central control secured, Zhu turned southward. The August 1381 decision to conquer Yunnan followed years of failed diplomacy, notably the 1372 execution of envoy Wang Yi by Prince of Liang Basalawarmi. The campaign mobilized 249,100 troops under Fu Youde, Lan Yu, and Mu Ying. Following Zhu’s detailed strategy, Ming forces took Qujing (the “throat of Yunnan”) in December 1381 through Mu Ying’s surprise river crossing. Basalawarmi’s subsequent suicide marked Yuan collapse in Yunnan, though pacification continued until 1383 when Mu Ying remained as permanent garrison commander – establishing the Mu family’s centuries-long stewardship.

Northeastern Completion: Subduing the Liaodong Frontier

The final piece emerged in 1387 with the Liaodong campaign against Naghachu, the last major Yuan holdout. Zhu’s adoptive son turned nemesis had evaded Ming control since 1368 despite earlier encounters (Zhu had released him after capture in 1355). Feng Sheng led 200,000 troops in 1387, combining pressure and diplomacy to secure Naghachu’s surrender. Though nearly derailed by Chang Mao’s (son of famed general Chang Yuchun) violent altercation with Naghachu, the operation successfully incorporated Liaodong, completing the Ming’s foundational territorial integration.

Legacy of the Hongwu Consolidation

These fourteen turbulent years (1373-1387) established patterns defining early Ming rule: assertive frontier expansion followed by selective retrenchment, increasing reliance on imperial kinsmen over meritorious officials, and bureaucratic centralization that balanced institutional innovation with brutal suppression of dissent. The period’s contradictions – between cultural accommodation and forced assimilation, between military aggression and defensive posture – would continue shaping Ming policy throughout the dynasty’s 276-year history.