A Dynasty in Crisis: The Death of Emperor Cheng and Succession Struggle

The Han Dynasty faced a pivotal moment in 7 BCE when Emperor Cheng died suddenly without a direct heir. His unexpected passing at age 44 created a power vacuum that would expose deep fractures within the imperial court. The circumstances surrounding his death were suspicious – after a normal evening, the emperor collapsed while dressing the next morning, unable to speak before dying. Public sentiment immediately blamed Consort Zhao Hede, the younger of the famous Zhao sisters who had dominated the emperor’s affections.

This succession crisis had been brewing for years. Emperor Cheng’s failure to produce an heir despite his numerous consorts became a growing concern. The Zhao sisters’ alleged involvement in eliminating potential imperial heirs created an atmosphere of suspicion. When the 19-year-old Liu Xin, Emperor Cheng’s nephew from his brother Prince Kang of Dingtao, was named heir apparent, it set the stage for the complex political dynamics that would define Emperor Ai’s reign.

The Rise of Emperor Ai and Factional Conflicts

Liu Xin’s ascension as Emperor Ai in 7 BCE marked a significant shift in court politics. The young emperor initially showed promise, implementing reforms to reduce extravagance and taking personal control of governance. He abolished the extravagant Music Bureau that had promoted lavish entertainment, reduced palace expenditures, and reformed official recruitment practices. These early measures created hope for a revitalized administration after Emperor Cheng’s indulgent reign.

However, Emperor Ai’s reign quickly became dominated by factional struggles between three powerful matriarchs:

1. Grand Empress Dowager Wang Zhengjun (widow of Emperor Yuan)
2. Empress Dowager Zhao Feiyan (Emperor Cheng’s widow)
3. His biological grandmother, the ambitious Fu太后

The Fu太后, as mother of Emperor Ai’s deceased father Prince Kang, aggressively sought equal status with Grand Empress Dowager Wang, creating constant tension. Her interference in state affairs through the “Purple Chamber Passageway” that connected her residence to the imperial palace became a source of ongoing conflict.

Wang Mang’s First Fall from Power

The transition to Emperor Ai’s reign created immediate problems for Wang Mang, nephew of Grand Empress Dowager Wang and the powerful Wang clan. As regent during the interregnum, Wang Mang initially retained authority, but the Fu太后 demanded her relatives replace Wang family members in key positions.

A pivotal incident occurred during palace preparations when Wang Mang objected to Fu太后’s seat being placed equally with Grand Empress Dowager Wang, declaring: “How can a vassal consort be placed equally with the supreme Grand Empress Dowager?” This bold challenge to Fu太后’s pretensions earned Wang Mang her lasting enmity.

Though forced to resign, Wang Mang’s dignified departure – refusing to criticize the emperor and maintaining his principles – enhanced his reputation among officials. Emperor Ai, recognizing Wang Mang’s value, granted him special privileges allowing continued influence, setting the stage for his eventual return to power.

Controversial Policies and Scholarly Debates

Emperor Ai’s reign saw several significant policy debates that revealed the court’s ideological divisions:

1. Wealth Limitation Proposal: Minister Shi Dan proposed limits on land and slave ownership to address wealth inequality, suggesting:
– 30顷 land maximum for nobles/officials
– 30 slaves maximum for non-royalty
– Three-year compliance period

Though approved initially, the measure was abandoned due to noble opposition, revealing the limitations of reform against entrenched interests.

2. Ancestral Temple Controversy: A heated debate emerged about maintaining Emperor Wu’s temple. While most officials advocated its removal (as kinship ties had faded), Liu Xin (later renamed Liu Xiu) successfully argued for preserving the temple of this transformative ruler, citing his unparalleled contributions to Han greatness.

3. Comprehensive Bibliography Project: Liu Xin completed the Seven Summaries (七略), China’s first systematic bibliography, categorizing knowledge into six groups with 38 subdivisions covering 596 schools of thought. His work preserved and organized the imperial library’s contents while promoting Confucian orthodoxy alongside other philosophical traditions.

The Tragic Case of Minister Shi Dan

Shi Dan’s career trajectory exemplified the perils of court politics. As Emperor Ai’s former tutor and Grand Minister of Works, he advocated maintaining Emperor Cheng’s policies during the mourning period, arguing: “For three years after a new ruler ascends, he should not alter his predecessor’s policies.”

His principled stand against over-promoting the Fu clan and his inconsistent position on currency reform made him vulnerable. When a subordinate leaked one of his memorials, rivals pounced. Despite his esteemed reputation and former students’ defenses, Shi Dan was stripped of his marquisate and position.

The case revealed Emperor Ai’s weakness before Fu太后’s influence, as he harshly rebuked his former mentor: “You dwell in exalted office but harbor disloyalty…I can only feel profoundly ashamed for you.” Though later reinstated as a lesser marquis, Shi Dan’s fall demonstrated the precarious position of reform-minded officials.

Natural Disasters and Cosmic Portents

The early years of Emperor Ai’s reign witnessed numerous natural phenomena interpreted as heavenly warnings:

– February 7 BCE: Mars approached the Heart constellation (interpreted as disaster approaching the sovereign)
– September 7 BCE: Major earthquake affecting 30+ commanderies
– January 6 BCE: 16 meteorites in Beidi commandery
– September 6 BCE: Two meteorites in Yu County

Scholar Li Xun capitalized on these events to warn against female influence in government: “The sun represents the sovereign…recently it has been especially dark.” He urged the emperor to “strengthen your willpower” and resist interference from consorts and relatives.

These memorials reflected the growing anxiety about Fu太后’s dominance and the emperor’s inability to assert independent authority.

The Water Control Debate

A significant policy discussion emerged around flood prevention strategies, with three competing approaches:

1. Jia Rang’s Three Strategies for Yellow River management:
– Upper Strategy: Relocate populations and allow the river to find its northern course
– Middle Strategy: Construct diversion channels and regulated irrigation
– Lower Strategy: Simply reinforce existing dikes

2. Ping Dang’s Proposal emphasized dredging over dike construction, arguing: “The way of controlling water lies in drainage, not blockage.”

These debates revealed the tension between ambitious, long-term solutions and practical, immediate responses to natural disasters. As commentator Wang Fuzhi later observed, short-term thinking usually prevailed because “the stupid cannot break accumulated habits.”

Palace Scandals and Familial Strife

Two tragic cases exposed the brutal nature of palace politics:

1. Zhao Sisters’ Infanticide: Investigations revealed Consort Zhao Hede’s involvement in eliminating Emperor Cheng’s potential heirs, including:
– Forcing Cao Gong (a palace instructor) to poison herself after childbirth
– Murdering the infant son of Beauty Xu

2. Framing of Grand Empress Feng: In a revenge plot thirty years in the making, Fu太后 orchestrated false charges of witchcraft against her former rival (who had famously protected Emperor Yuan from a bear). Despite lack of evidence, the investigation led to Grand Empress Feng’s suicide and seventeen related deaths.

These episodes demonstrated how personal vendettas could drive state actions, with Emperor Ai complicit in his grandmother’s schemes. As historian Ban Biao noted through his aunt Ban Jieyu’s recollections, the late Emperor Cheng’s reign had already been compromised by “indulgence in wine and women,” with the Zhao sisters’ licentiousness and Wang clan’s dominance creating systemic weakness.

The Legacy of Emperor Ai’s Early Reign

The first two years of Emperor Ai’s rule (7-6 BCE) established patterns that would define his troubled reign:

1. Weak Leadership: Despite initial promise, Emperor Ai proved unable to resist Fu太后’s domination, enabling factional conflicts.
2. Scholarly Achievement: Liu Xin’s bibliographical work preserved cultural heritage during political turmoil.
3. Reform Failures: Well-intentioned proposals like wealth limits foundered against aristocratic resistance.
4. Moral Decline: The persecution of Grand Empress Feng and tolerance of Zhao sisters’ crimes eroded institutional legitimacy.

As Wang Mang waited in the wings, the Han dynasty’s weakening foundations became increasingly apparent. The rapid turnover of officials, policy reversals, and imperial submission to familial pressures all foreshadowed the greater crises to come. In the assessment of historian Sima Guang, these events demonstrated how “not knowing destiny” – failing to understand one’s proper role – could unravel both personal virtue and political order.