The Death of Liu Bang and the Fragile Succession

In 195 BCE, Emperor Gaozu of Han, Liu Bang, suffered an arrow wound during a campaign against Ying Bu. Convinced of his divine mandate, he refused medical treatment, leading to a rapid deterioration of his health. As death approached, Empress Lü, concerned about their young and timid heir apparent Liu Ying (later Emperor Hui), pressed Liu Bang to name regents. The emperor listed Cao Shen, Wang Ling, Chen Ping, and Zhou Bo—the last of whom he singled out as crucial for stabilizing the Han dynasty.

Liu Bang’s death in April 195 BCE marked the beginning of a precarious era. Despite being the eldest son, Liu Ying had never won his father’s favor. Liu Bang openly preferred Liu Ruyi, his son with Consort Qi, whose bold personality mirrored his own. Only through Empress Lü’s relentless politicking—allying with key figures like Zhang Liang and Shusun Tong—was Liu Ying’s position as heir preserved.

Empress Lü’s Ruthless Regency

Upon Liu Ying’s ascension as Emperor Hui, Empress Lü swiftly consolidated power. Her first act was a grotesque revenge against Consort Qi, whom she mutilated into a “human swine” (人彘) and forced the horrified young emperor to witness. The trauma left Hui mentally shattered, ceding governance entirely to his mother.

Empress Lü’s regency (195–180 BCE) was defined by systemic purges. She eliminated potential rivals, including:
– Liu Ruyi: Poisoned after being lured to the capital.
– Liu Fei of Qi: Narrowly escaped assassination by ceding territory to Lü’s daughter.
– Liu You and Liu Hui: Two other imperial sons driven to death for resisting arranged marriages with Lü clan women.

By 180 BCE, the Lü faction controlled four key kingdoms (Liang, Zhao, Yan, and a revived Lü Kingdom) and dominated court positions—a blatant violation of Liu Bang’s “White Horse Oath” banning non-Liu family members from holding princely titles.

The Lü Clan’s Downfall and the Rise of Emperor Wen

Empress Lü’s death in 180 BCE triggered a bloody coup. Key events unfolded:
1. Liu Xiang of Qi revolted, backed by his brother Liu Zhang, who infiltrated the Lü inner circle via marriage to Lü Lu’s daughter.
2. Zhou Bo’s gambit: The disenfranchised marshal seized control of the Northern Army by exploiting Lü Lu’s trust in mutual friend Li Ji.
3. The purge: At the Battle of Weiyang Palace, Lü Chan was slain by Liu Zhang’s forces, followed by the extermination of the entire Lü clan.

The post-coup power vacuum led to the selection of Liu Heng, Prince of Dai, as Emperor Wen (r. 180–157 BCE). His unlikely path to the throne reflected Han succession politics:
– Survival under Lü: His mother, Lady Bo—a former concubine who shared only “one night” with Liu Bang—avoided persecution by maintaining obscurity.
– Political calculations: Ministers prioritized candidates with “safe” maternal relatives, rejecting Liu Chang of Huainan due to his notorious uncle Zhao Jian.

Emperor Wen’s Dual Strategy: Benevolence and Brutality

Liu Heng’s reign mastered the balance between soft power and ruthless realpolitik:

### Neutralizing Threats
– Against功臣 (Meritorious Officials):
– Forced key figures like Zhou Bo to retire to fiefdoms, then framed him for rebellion (though later pardoned under pressure from Empress Dowager Bo).
– Dismantled the功臣 network by 178 BCE through strategic dismissals.
– Against Princes:
– Qi Partitioned: Split into seven weak states after Liu Xiang’s death (179 BCE).
– Liu Chang of Huainan: Allowed to assassinate a hated minister before being starved to death in captivity (174 BCE).

### Reforms and Legacy
– Economic: Reduced taxes and corvée labor, promoting recovery from Lü-era turmoil.
– Legal: Abolished mutilating punishments (肉刑) after the famous case of Ti Ying pleading for her father.
– Cultural: Institutionalized “filial piety” (孝治), embedding it in imperial titulature (e.g., “Xiaowen Di”).

The Precursor to Rebellion: Emperor Jing’s Challenges

Emperor Jing (r. 157–141 BCE) inherited a stabilized realm but faced immediate crises:
– Chao Cuo’s Reforms: Aggressive centralization policies, including land confiscations from princes, sparked the Rebellion of the Seven States (154 BCE).
– Suppression: Relied on Zhou Yafu’s brilliant tactics—starving Wu-Chu forces by cutting supply lines—to crush the revolt in months.

Conclusion: The Han Consolidation

The bloody transition from Liu Bang’s death to Emperor Wen’s reign reshaped Han governance. Empress Lü’s tyranny and the Lü clan’s obliteration became cautionary tales about dowager influence, while Emperor Wen’s “carrot-and-stick” approach laid foundations for the Han golden age under Wu Di. The era’s lessons—balancing regional autonomy with central authority, and the dangers of unchecked regencies—echoed through Chinese imperial history.