The Precarious Throne of Richard II

In the late 14th century, England found itself at a crossroads. The costly Scottish raids and failed military expeditions had drained royal coffers, forcing a reckoning with the aggressive strategies promoted by powerful nobles. Richard II, who had ascended the throne as a child in 1377, finally saw his opportunity to assert control in 1389. On May 3 of that year, the 22-year-old king entered Westminster Hall to formally declare his majority, marking a turning point in English governance.

Richard’s first act was to dismantle the power structure of the Lords Appellant who had dominated his minority. He demanded the surrender of the Great Seal from Thomas Arundel, replacing him as Chancellor with William of Wykeham, Bishop of Winchester. The king expelled key opponents including Thomas of Woodstock (Duke of Gloucester), Thomas de Beauchamp (Earl of Warwick), and Richard FitzAlan (Earl of Arundel) from the royal council. Arundel additionally lost his positions as Admiral of the Fleet and commander of Brest. Hundreds of lesser officials placed by the Appellants throughout the government and royal household were similarly purged.

Building a New Regime

To consolidate his authority, Richard employed several strategic maneuvers. He formally recognized the judgments of the Merciless Parliament (1388) while ignoring appeals from those it had exiled. The king cultivated alliances with powerful figures like John of Gaunt and Edmund of Langley, Duke of York, while elevating a new generation of nobles loyal to the crown. This political restructuring allowed Richard to establish a more stable government that could address the kingdom’s pressing financial crisis.

The king’s most popular move was his decision to reduce the heavy taxes that had caused widespread discontent. To achieve this fiscal relief, Richard accelerated peace negotiations with France, recognizing that continued warfare would require unsustainable taxation. This pragmatic approach marked a significant departure from the aggressive continental policies favored by the nobility.

Parallel Developments in France

Across the Channel, France experienced remarkably similar political changes. The young Charles VI, who had succeeded his father Charles V in 1380, grew weary of his uncles’ domineering rule. His ambitious 1388 campaign in the Low Countries had yielded little beyond a favorable truce for Burgundy. On November 3, 1388, the 20-year-old king dismissed his uncles with thanks for their “eight years of labor,” signaling his assumption of personal rule.

Charles VI’s court initially showed promise under the guidance of reform-minded advisors like Olivier de Clisson and the so-called “Marmousets” (a derogatory term meaning “small people” used by the high nobility). These administrators implemented financial reforms, streamlined government, and reduced corruption. Like Richard, Charles recognized the burden of continuous warfare and sought peace with England.

The Leulinghem Truce of 1389

On June 18, 1389, representatives from both kingdoms met at Leulinghem near Calais to sign a three-year truce, effectively ending the second phase of the Hundred Years’ War. The agreement included provisions for negotiating a more permanent peace. This diplomatic breakthrough reflected both monarchs’ desires to consolidate their domestic positions by ending the costly conflict.

However, fundamental disagreements prevented lasting peace. The English remained attached to the territorial gains of the 1360 Treaty of Brétigny, while the French insisted on English homage for Aquitaine. Richard proposed a compromise where John of Gaunt (whom he made Duke of Aquitaine for life in 1390) would perform homage, but the French rejected this solution.

The Limits of Royal Authority

Despite their intentions, both kings faced constraints on their power. In England, war hawks like Gloucester and Arundel continued to influence Parliament, portraying any peace agreement as tantamount to English submission to France. Richard had to navigate carefully to avoid being swept up in this nationalist sentiment.

Meanwhile, France redirected its energies toward Italian ambitions. Charles VI supported his cousin Louis II of Anjou’s claim to Naples and arranged the marriage of his brother Louis, Duke of Touraine, to Valentina Visconti of Milan in 1389. Only English protests prevented Charles from leading a major expedition to Italy in 1391.

Crisis and Collapse in France

French politics took a dramatic turn in 1392 when Pierre de Craon, a disgraced former courtier, attempted to assassinate Olivier de Clisson. When Craon fled to Brittany, Charles VI assembled an army to punish Duke John V of Brittany. During this campaign on August 5, 1392, the king suffered his first bout of madness, attacking his own retinue in a forest near Le Mans.

This psychotic episode marked the beginning of Charles VI’s lifelong mental illness. With the king incapacitated, his uncles returned to power, reversing the Marmousets’ reforms. Clisson fled Paris, and the French government fractured along factional lines.

Richard’s Domestic Consolidation

Back in England, Richard II took advantage of the peace to strengthen his position. In 1394, he led a successful 6,000-man expedition to Ireland, forcing Art MacMurrough to submit. The king also negotiated a prestigious marriage to Charles VI’s six-year-old daughter Isabella in 1396, which came with an enormous dowry of 800,000 francs and a 28-year truce.

Financially secure from the French marriage settlement, Richard moved against his remaining opponents in 1397. He arrested Gloucester, Arundel, and Warwick. A new group of noble appellants (including Richard’s nephew Thomas Holland and John Beaufort) brought charges against them. Gloucester died in custody (likely murdered), Arundel was executed, and Warwick was imprisoned.

The Downfall of Richard II

Richard’s triumph proved short-lived. His increasingly autocratic rule alienated even former allies. In 1398, he exiled Henry Bolingbroke (John of Gaunt’s son) and Thomas Mowbray after their dispute over royal intentions. When Gaunt died in 1399, Richard confiscated the Lancastrian estates rather than letting the exiled Henry inherit them.

This proved a fatal miscalculation. While Richard was in Ireland, Henry returned to England in July 1399 with modest forces but growing support. The king’s government collapsed as nobles defected. By August, Richard was captured and forced to abdicate. Parliament ratified his deposition on September 30, 1399, and Henry IV took the throne, ending the direct Plantagenet line.

The Lancastrian Era Begins

Henry IV inherited a troubled kingdom. Financial problems plagued his government, with royal income only a third of Edward III’s levels. He faced immediate challenges: Scottish border raids, Owain Glyndŵr’s Welsh rebellion (beginning September 1400), and lingering loyalty to Richard (who was secretly killed in 1400).

France refused to recognize Henry’s legitimacy and demanded Isabella’s return. The new king’s financial difficulties prevented him from repaying her dowry, further straining relations. Meanwhile, French politics became increasingly factionalized between Burgundians and Orléanists (led by Charles VI’s brother Louis).

The Gathering Storm

By 1402-1403, England faced multiple crises. Glyndŵr scored significant victories in Wales, while the Percys—key northern allies—turned against Henry after disputes over Scottish prisoners and payments. The resulting Battle of Shrewsbury (July 21, 1403) saw Henry and his son (the future Henry V) defeat the rebels, though the young prince was nearly killed by an arrow to the face.

France began probing attacks on England, including raids on the Isle of Wight (1403) and Dartmouth (1404). The death of Philip the Bold, Duke of Burgundy in 1404 removed a moderating influence in French politics, leaving Louis of Orléans dominant and pushing France toward renewed war with England.

The Legacy of Failed Peace

The period 1389-1404 represents a crucial transition in Anglo-French relations. Both Richard II and Charles VI attempted to move beyond the Hundred Years’ War, but structural factors—noble opposition in England and factionalism in France—prevented lasting peace. The deposition of Richard II and Henry IV’s contested legitimacy further complicated matters, setting the stage for Henry V’s dramatic revival of English claims in France.

These events also highlight the fragility of medieval kingship. Despite their royal authority, both Richard and Charles found their power constrained by financial realities, noble factions, and the unpredictable consequences of personal health crises. The parallel stories of these two troubled reigns reveal much about the nature of late medieval monarchy and the challenges of governing in an age of transition.