The Fractured Legacy of Sulla’s Reforms

In the aftermath of Rome’s civil wars, the dictator Lucius Cornelius Sulla sought to restore the supremacy of the Senate through sweeping constitutional reforms. His system, designed to stabilize the Republic, enforced strict career progression—the cursus honorum—where politicians climbed a ladder of offices: quaestor at 30, praetor at 39, and consul at 42. This age-based hierarchy aimed to prevent ambitious newcomers from destabilizing the state. Yet by 71 BCE, two of Sulla’s own protégés, Pompey and Crassus, would unravel this very system through sheer ambition and mutual distrust.

Pompey, aged 35, returned from Spain as a victorious general, despite lacking even the quaestorship required to enter the Senate. Crassus, 43, had crushed Spartacus’ slave revolt but was loathed for his ruthless wealth accumulation. Their rivalry was personal: Pompey disdained Crassus’ greed, while Crassus envied Pompey’s youthful fame. Though both were Sulla’s allies, their clash exposed the fragility of his reforms.

Breaking the Rules: Pompey’s Audacious Bid for Power

Pompey’s demand to stand for consul in 70 BCE was revolutionary. At 35, he was seven years below the legal age. Worse, he had never held the quaestorship or a Senate seat—key steps in Sulla’s cursus honorum. His entire career was a series of exceptions: a triumph at 25, command in Spain without prior praetorship. Now, he pressured the Senate by refusing to disband his legions, a blatant violation of Sulla’s laws.

Crassus, though legally eligible, faced his own hurdles. His reputation as Rome’s wealthiest man—gained through property speculation and slave trading—made him unpopular. Yet he too kept his army intact, defying Sulla’s post-war demobilization rules. The Senate, weakened since Sulla’s death in 78 BCE, found itself cornered by two generals who flouted its authority.

The Pact That Shook Rome

In a stunning twist, the bitter rivals struck a deal. Crassus would lobby the Senate to accept Pompey’s candidacy; in return, Pompey’s supporters would back Crassus. Their joint consulship in 70 BCE marked the end of Sulla’s vision. The Senate, no longer gatekeeper to high office, watched as military popularity trumped constitutional order.

Their partnership was purely transactional. Pompey, ever the populist, courted public favor by restoring tribunes’ powers—a move Sulla had curtailed. Crassus, ever the pragmatist, used his wealth to buy political loyalty. Together, they dismantled Sulla’s reforms, though their alliance would soon fracture.

Caesar’s Entrance: A New Player Emerges

Around 69 BCE, a 31-year-old Julius Caesar took his first step on the cursus honorum as quaestor in Hispania. Unlike Pompey, he followed tradition—but his flamboyant debts and reputation as a playboy masked sharper ambitions. His posting to Spain, a backwater after Pompey’s campaigns, was unremarkable. Yet this was the quiet beginning of a rivalry that would later redefine Rome.

The Unraveling of Republican Order

Pompey and Crassus’ consulship revealed a critical shift: the Republic’s institutions could no longer contain individual ambition. Sulla’s reforms had assumed elites would respect the rules, but men like Pompey proved that military success could override legal barriers. The Senate’s inability to enforce the cursus honorum set a precedent—one Caesar would later exploit.

Their feud also highlighted Rome’s evolving power dynamics. Wealth (Crassus), military acclaim (Pompey), and popular appeal (both) became alternative routes to influence, sidelining the Senate’s traditional role. The Republic’s facade remained, but its foundations were cracking.

Legacy: From Cooperation to Civil War

The temporary alliance between Pompey and Crassus foreshadowed Rome’s future. Their later enmity would draw Caesar into the First Triumvirate (60 BCE), an extra-constitutional pact that buried Sulla’s system entirely. By the time Caesar crossed the Rubicon in 49 BCE, the idea of age qualifications or Senate approval seemed quaint.

Pompey’s rise demonstrated how charisma and armies could bend the Republic’s rules; Crassus showed how money could bypass them. Together, they normalized the very instability Sulla had tried to eradicate. Their story is a lesson in how short-term alliances among rivals can accelerate institutional decay—a theme echoing far beyond ancient Rome.

Why This Matters Today

The collapse of Sulla’s system mirrors modern tensions between institutional norms and personal ambition. When rules are selectively enforced—whether for generals, billionaires, or populists—systems lose legitimacy. Pompey and Crassus’ deal wasn’t just political maneuvering; it was a turning point where the Republic’s checks and balances failed. Their legacy warns us: no constitution is immune to those who prize power over process.