Introduction: A Scholar’s Dangerous Dream

In the sixth year of the Yongzheng Emperor’s reign, a quiet but determined movement stirred in the heart of Hunan province. Zeng Jing, a local scholar influenced by the writings of the deceased intellectual Lü Liuliang, had become convinced that the Manchu Qing dynasty must fall and the native Ming dynasty be restored. This was no mere academic exercise—it was treason punishable by death, and Zeng Jing would soon discover how high the stakes truly were. His story, which unfolded between 1728 and 1735, reveals the complex relationship between intellectual dissent and absolute power in eighteenth-century China, offering a window into how propaganda, punishment, and political theater served the interests of the state.

The Intellectual Foundations of Dissent

The ideological roots of Zeng Jing’s rebellion stretched back decades before his fateful decision to act. Lü Liuliang, though deceased by the time Zeng Jing embraced his cause, had left behind a powerful intellectual legacy. A scholar of the late Ming and early Qing transition, Lü had never accepted Manchu rule as legitimate. His writings argued passionately for the restoration of Han Chinese sovereignty, framing the Qing dynasty as foreign usurpers who had violated the natural order. This philosophy of “anti-Qing restoration of Ming” resonated particularly strongly among educated Han Chinese who remembered the fallen dynasty with nostalgia.

Zeng Jing represented a classic case of how radical ideas can transform ordinary individuals into political actors. As a provincial scholar, he had access to Lü’s forbidden texts despite official prohibitions. These works circulated secretly among intellectual circles, creating what we might today call a counter-cultural narrative against the established regime. The very act of reading such material was dangerous, but for Zeng Jing, the ideas proved too compelling to ignore. They provided both a philosophical framework for understanding China’s predicament and a moral imperative to take action.

The Fateful Misjudgment

The year 1728 marked the turning point in Zeng Jing’s life when he heard a rumor that would prove his undoing. Word had reached Hunan that Yue Zhongqi, the powerful Governor-General of Sichuan and Shaanxi, had allegedly submitted memorials criticizing the Yongzheng Emperor. To Zeng Jing’s hopeful interpretation, this suggested that Yue—a respected military commander—might harbor resentment against the throne and potentially be persuaded to join a rebellion.

This assumption reflected both wishful thinking and a fundamental misunderstanding of Qing politics. Yue Zhongqi was indeed descended from the legendary Song dynasty general Yue Fei, a symbol of loyalty to the Han Chinese cause. However, he had also risen to become one of the most trusted officials in the Yongzheng administration. The notion that he would risk his position, wealth, and life based on unverified rumors demonstrated how thoroughly Zeng Jing’s ideological convictions had clouded his political judgment.

The Treasonous Letter

Under cover of darkness, Zeng Jing composed what would become one of the most infamous documents of the Yongzheng reign. Addressing Yue Zhongqi directly, he penned a passionate appeal that combined flattery, historical allusion, and startling accusations against the emperor. The letter claimed that Yongzheng had poisoned his father Kangxi, forced his mother to suicide, executed his brothers, surrounded himself with corrupt officials, and indulged in drunkenness and debauchery. These charges—whether based on rumor, genuine belief, or strategic exaggeration—represented an extraordinary catalog of imperial crimes.

Most crucially, Zeng Jing appealed to Yue Zhongqi’s celebrated ancestry. By invoking the memory of Yue Fei, who had famously resisted foreign invasion during the Song dynasty, Zeng attempted to frame collaboration as betrayal and rebellion as patriotism. He urged Yue to lead a military uprising against the Qing, promising support from loyalists in Hunan and elsewhere. The letter concluded with an exhortation to immediate action, suggesting that history would judge this moment as decisive for China’s future.

The Messenger’s Mission

Zeng Jing entrusted the dangerous delivery to his student Zhang Xi, who embarked on the long journey to Xi’an carrying the seditious document. Zhang’s mission required both courage and cunning—approaching a high-ranking official with treasonous material could easily result in immediate arrest and execution. Historical accounts suggest he employed various strategies to bypass security protocols and ensure the letter reached Yue Zhongqi personally, perhaps posing as a petitioner or using intermediaries within the governor’s administration.

When Yue Zhongqi finally received and read the letter, his reaction was swift and decisive. Rather than being swayed by Zeng Jing’s arguments, he recognized the document for what it was: evidence of a serious conspiracy against the throne. As a loyal servant of the emperor and a practical man aware of the realities of power, Yue immediately forwarded the letter to Beijing along with his report on the incident. This action demonstrated both his political reliability and his understanding that handling such matters personally would be inappropriate and potentially suspicious.

The Emperor’s Fury and the Investigation

The arrival of Zeng Jing’s letter in the capital triggered what we might today describe as a major security crisis. Yongzheng, known for his meticulous attention to governance and low tolerance for dissent, reacted with a mixture of outrage and strategic calculation. The specific allegations—particularly the charge of patricide—struck at the heart of the emperor’s carefully cultivated image as a filial son and legitimate ruler. In Confucian political philosophy, which emphasized family virtue as the foundation of political authority, such accusations threatened to undermine the moral basis of Yongzheng’s reign.

The emperor ordered a comprehensive investigation, mobilizing the security apparatus to identify everyone involved in the conspiracy. Officials from the central government were dispatched to Hunan to gather evidence and apprehend the suspects. The efficiency of the Qing bureaucracy in such matters was remarkable—within a short period, Zeng Jing and Zhang Xi were in custody, along with others connected to the plot. The investigation revealed the extent of Lü Liuliang’s posthumous influence and the networks through which his ideas continued to circulate despite official prohibition.

The Interrogation and Psychological Warfare

The interrogation of Zeng Jing and Zhang Xi represents a fascinating case study in Qing judicial practices and psychological manipulation. Rather than immediately resorting to torture, the officials employed a more sophisticated approach designed to maximize cooperation and generate useful propaganda material. They presented the prisoners with an array of torture instruments, demonstrating their function and effects in graphic detail. This theatrical display served to break the prisoners’ resistance by confronting them with the physical reality of what lay ahead if they refused to cooperate.

Faced with this terrifying spectacle, both men quickly comprehended their hopeless position. The interrogators offered a clear choice: cooperation would bring mercy, while resistance would lead to unimaginable suffering. This calculated presentation of incentives and consequences proved effective—Zeng Jing, in particular, grasped the opportunity to save himself through contrition and collaboration. The stage was set for one of the most remarkable political recantations in Chinese history.

The Confession: Crafting the “Return to Benevolence”

Zeng Jing’s confession, titled “Return to Benevolence” , represents a masterpiece of coerced political theater. In this document, he systematically retracted every accusation against Yongzheng, attributing his errors to the pernicious influence of Lü Liuliang’s writings. He characterized his own actions as those of a misled fool who had succumbed to seditious ideas, praising the emperor’s virtue, wisdom, and benevolent governance. The confession followed a predictable pattern of political recantation: personal failing, external influence, recognition of error, and fulsome praise for the established authority.

What makes Zeng Jing’s confession particularly interesting is its detailed nature. He didn’t merely offer a generic apology but addressed specific allegations, explaining why they were false and how he came to believe them. This thoroughness served the government’s purposes perfectly—it provided point-by-point refutations of anti-Qing propaganda while demonstrating the possibility of redemption for those who strayed from political orthodoxy. The document would become the centerpiece of Yongzheng’s response to the crisis.

The Emperor’s Unconventional Response

Yongzheng’s handling of the Zeng Jing case surprised many contemporaries and continues to intrigue historians. Rather than executing the conspirators immediately—the standard punishment for treason—he granted them a full pardon. This extraordinary clemency was accompanied by a public proclamation protecting Zeng Jing, Zhang Xi, and their families from any future punishment. The emperor positioned himself as a merciful ruler who valued reeducation over retribution, drawing a contrast between his approach and the harsh justice meted out to Lü Liuliang’s legacy.

The treatment of Lü Liuliang posthumously was indeed brutal. His corpse was exhumed and mutilated, his descendants executed, and his writings systematically destroyed. This differential treatment—mercy for the living conspirators, extreme punishment for the dead intellectual—was carefully calculated. Yongzheng wanted to demonstrate that those who repented could be reintegrated into society, while ideas themselves posed the real danger and required eradication.

The Propaganda Masterpiece: “Record of Great Righteousness Awakening from Confusion”

Yongzheng’s most innovative response to the crisis was the compilation and distribution of “Record of Great Righteousness Awakening from Confusion” . This extraordinary work assembled Zeng Jing’s confession, interrogation records, and the emperor’s own refutations of anti-Qing arguments into a comprehensive political education text. Rather than suppressing the incident, Yongzheng chose to publicize it extensively, using the conspiracy as an opportunity to address criticisms of his reign and defend Qing legitimacy.

The text was remarkable for its transparency—it included the original allegations against the emperor alongside detailed responses. This approach reflected Yongzheng’s confidence in his ability to win the ideological argument and his understanding that simply suppressing criticism might only fuel speculation. The work addressed sensitive topics including the succession dispute following Kangxi’s death, the treatment of Yongzheng’s brothers, and the general question of Manchu legitimacy to rule China. In doing so, it provided official answers to questions that were likely circulating privately among the educated elite.

The National Education Campaign

The publication of “Record of Great Righteousness Awakening from Confusion” was accompanied by an unprecedented educational campaign. The government distributed copies to schools throughout the country, making study of the text mandatory for students. Teachers were instructed to ensure students understood the work’s arguments and could properly criticize Zeng Jing’s errors. This represented one of the most systematic efforts in Chinese history to use the education system for political indoctrination on a national scale.

The campaign extended beyond the classroom into public life. Officials organized discussion sessions and public readings of the text, ensuring its messages reached even those who weren’t formally educated. The government monitored the implementation of these instructions carefully, punishing those who failed to demonstrate sufficient understanding or enthusiasm. This comprehensive approach turned a security crisis into an opportunity for reinforcing ideological orthodoxy throughout the empire.

The Rehabilitation Tour: Performative Contrition

Perhaps the most extraordinary aspect of Yongzheng’s response was the national tour featuring Zeng Jing and Zhang Xi themselves. The pardoned conspirators were sent throughout China to recount their errors and praise the emperor’s mercy. This traveling show of contrition served multiple purposes: it demonstrated the effectiveness of the government’s reeducation efforts, provided living proof of Yongzheng’s clemency, and allowed the message to be delivered by those who had originally propagated sedition.

The psychological impact on both the performers and their audiences must have been profound. For Zeng Jing and Zhang Xi, the tour represented a continuous performance of humiliation and gratitude for their spared lives. For spectators, it offered a powerful lesson in the consequences of dissent and the possibilities for redemption through submission to imperial authority. The tour transformed abstract political principles into tangible human drama, making ideological conformity more memorable and emotionally resonant.

The Succession and Unexpected Reversal

Yongzheng’s unusual approach to the Zeng Jing case reflected his particular governing philosophy, but it did not survive his death in 1735. When his son Hongli ascended the throne as the Qianlong Emperor, he quickly moved to reverse his father’s policy. Shortly after his accession, Qianlong ordered the execution of Zeng Jing and Zhang Xi, despite Yongzheng’s explicit promise of protection. This dramatic reversal demonstrated the new emperor’s different attitude toward political dissent and his desire to establish his own governing style.

Qianlong justified his action with a clever legalistic argument: while Zeng Jing had slandered Yongzheng , and this offense against an ancestor could not be pardoned. This reasoning allowed Qianlong to present himself as more filial than his father while simultaneously asserting his authority. The execution served as a clear message that the new reign would tolerate no dissent, regardless of previous understandings.

The Prohibition and Historical Irony

In a final ironic twist, Qianlong not only executed Zeng Jing but also prohibited “Record of Great Righteousness Awakening from Confusion,” making it the first banned book written by an emperor in Chinese history. This prohibition reflected Qianlong’s belief that his father’s approach had been misguided—that rather than neutralizing criticism through transparency, the work had actually spread seditious ideas more widely. The ban demonstrated the fundamental tension in dealing with political dissent: whether to address criticisms directly or suppress them entirely.

The prohibition had unintended consequences for historical scholarship. Because the work was banned and most copies destroyed, it became extremely rare, increasing interest in its contents among collectors and scholars. Ironically, Qianlong’s attempt to erase the work from history preserved it as an object of fascination, ensuring that the very ideas he wanted to suppress would continue to attract attention precisely because they were forbidden.

Legacy and Historical Significance

The Zeng Jing case offers valuable insights into Qing political culture, the management of dissent, and the uses of propaganda. Yongzheng’s innovative approach—combining brutal punishment for the source of ideas with merciful rehabilitation for those who recanted—reflected a sophisticated understanding of ideological control. His willingness to engage directly with criticism, rather than simply suppressing it, demonstrated unusual confidence in his government’s ability to win intellectual arguments.

The case also illustrates the precarious position of Han Chinese intellectuals under Manchu rule. The persistence of Ming loyalist sentiment decades after the Qing consolidation of power suggests that legitimacy remained a live issue, particularly among educated elites. The government’s extensive efforts to address these concerns through education and propaganda indicate how seriously they took the challenge.

Finally, the different approaches taken by Yongzheng