An Empire Forged in Conflict

The year 202 BCE dawned with cautious optimism across the newly established Han Empire. As the sun rose over the capital Chang’an—meaning “Perpetual Peace”—the people watched with hopeful eyes, though the crimson morning sky seemed to portend bloodshed rather than tranquility. Liu Bang, recently crowned Emperor Gaozu, had emerged victorious from the Chu-Han Contention that followed the collapse of the Qin Dynasty, finally unifying China under his rule. Yet the peace he had fought so hard to achieve remained elusive, threatened by the very allies who had helped him secure power.

The early Han period represented a critical transition in Chinese history. Following the brutal but short-lived Qin Dynasty , which had established China’s first centralized imperial system but collapsed under the weight of its own harsh policies, Liu Bang positioned himself as a more moderate ruler. He understood that the Qin’s Legalist approach had alienated the population, and he sought to incorporate elements of Confucian governance while maintaining strong central control. This balancing act would define his reign and set the pattern for subsequent Han rulers.

The Reluctant Emperor’s Burden

Liu Bang’s ascent to power was remarkable. Born into a peasant family in Peixian, he rose through the ranks during the rebellion against Qin rule, eventually defeating his primary rival Xiang Yu at the Battle of Gaixia. His victory speech emphasized reconciliation and unity, promising an end to the warfare that had plagued China for generations. He established his capital at Chang’an, strategically located in the Wei River Valley, and began the process of consolidating power.

The new emperor faced an immediate challenge: how to reward his supporters while maintaining control. The solution emerged as a hybrid system—the commandery-county structure inherited from Qin for direct administration, combined with semi-autonomous kingdoms granted to his most powerful allies. This compromise would prove problematic, as these regional rulers possessed significant military and economic resources that could challenge central authority.

The Gathering Storm: Early Rebellions

The peace Liu Bang had envisioned shattered almost immediately after his coronation. In December 202 BCE, just months after defeating Xiang Yu, news arrived that Zang Tu, the King of Yan, had rebelled. The emperor personally led his forces north, suppressing the rebellion within two months. This pattern would repeat throughout his reign—no sooner had one threat been neutralized than another emerged.

The following year brought perhaps the most troubling development: allegations that Han Xin, the brilliant general who had contributed significantly to Liu Bang’s victory and now ruled as King of Chu, was plotting rebellion. Rather than risk open confrontation, Liu Bang devised a trap, inviting Han Xin to Chang’an under false pretenses and placing him under arrest. He was demoted to Marquis of Huaiyin, a humiliating reduction in status that preserved his life but eliminated his power base.

Northern Frontiers and Foreign Threats

In 200 BCE, a more complex crisis emerged when Han Wang Xin , ruler of the northern frontier region, allied with the Xiongnu Confederation—nomadic pastoralists who posed a constant threat to China’s northern borders. Liu Bang again took personal command, pursuing the rebel forces deep into hostile territory. His overconfidence nearly proved disastrous when Xiongnu forces surrounded the imperial army at Mount Baideng for seven days, cutting off supplies and escape routes. Only through clever diplomacy and possibly bribes did the emperor secure safe passage, though the incident revealed the vulnerability of the new dynasty.

The Xiongnu threat represented a fundamental security challenge that would preoccupy Han rulers for generations. These nomadic horsemen possessed military mobility that the agrarian Chinese could not easily match, and their raids disrupted trade and threatened settlements along the entire northern frontier. Liu Bang’s inability to decisively defeat them established a pattern of sometimes uneasy relations that alternated between military conflict and diplomatic marriage alliances.

The Unending Cycle of Rebellion

The years 199-196 BCE witnessed further conspiracies and uprisings. Zhang Ao, the King of Zhao, was accused of plotting against the throne and imprisoned. Then Chen Xi, chancellor of Dai province, seized control of Zhao territory and rebelled, requiring another military campaign to suppress. Most dramatically, in 196 BCE, the previously disgraced Han Xin was implicated in a new conspiracy and executed along with his extended family—a common punishment for treason that aimed to eliminate potential future claimants.

That same summer brought the downfall of Peng Yue, King of Liang, another early supporter accused of rebellion. His execution and the extermination of his clan sent a clear message about the consequences of disloyalty. Yet the message seemed not to deter others, for that autumn brought the most serious challenge yet: the rebellion of Ying Bu, King of Huainan.

The Final Confrontation

By 196 BCE, Liu Bang was sixty-two years old and in declining health. The constant campaigning had taken its toll, and the emperor who had once dreamed of peaceful administration found himself perpetually at war. When Ying Bu rebelled, Liu Bang once more took to the field, meeting the rebel forces at Qi County.

The scene was set for what would become a legendary exchange. As armies faced each other beneath fluttering banners, the emperor rode forward and demanded to know why his former ally would betray him. After a moment of tense silence, Ying Bu’s answer echoed across the field: “I wish to be emperor!”

This stark declaration revealed the fundamental problem Liu Bang faced. The regional kings, despite their oaths of loyalty, ultimately saw themselves as potential contenders for the ultimate prize. The system of enfeoffment that had seemed necessary to secure support now threatened to tear the empire apart.

The White Horse Oath

Following his victory over Ying Bu, Liu Bang convened his ministers and performed a solemn ceremony. He sacrificed a white horse and administered an oath that would become foundational to Han political philosophy: “Those who are not of the Liu family but claim the title of king, and those who claim the title of marquis without merit, all under heaven shall attack them!”

This “White Horse Covenant” established the principle that only members of the imperial family should hold kingly titles, while non-royal elites could only attain the lower rank of marquis through demonstrated service to the state. It represented both a pragmatic solution to immediate political challenges and a philosophical statement about the relationship between merit, bloodline, and political power.

Succession and Uncertainty

Liu Bang died in 195 BCE, leaving the throne to his son Liu Ying, who became Emperor Hui. The transition occurred smoothly, but underlying tensions remained. The new emperor was young and described by historians as gentle to the point of weakness—characteristics that concerned those who remembered the turbulent early years of the dynasty.

The true power behind the throne emerged as Empress Lü, Liu Bang’s widow and Emperor Hui’s mother. As regent, she faced a complex political landscape: the regional kings, though now predominantly members of the Liu family, still possessed considerable autonomy; the military commanders who had helped found the dynasty retained influence; and the Xiongnu continued to threaten the northern borders.

The Empress’s Predicament

Empress Lü’s position was inherently precarious. As a woman in a patriarchal system, she lacked the traditional legitimacy of a male ruler. Her son’s gentle nature raised concerns about his ability to maintain control, leading her to take a more active role in governance than previous empresses. She understood that consolidating power would require careful strategy and patience.

Her concerns were not merely abstract political calculations. They were rooted in personal experience, particularly the memory of the succession crisis of 197 BCE, when Liu Bang had seriously considered replacing her son as crown prince with another son by his favorite consort, Lady Qi.

The Succession Crisis of 197 BCE

The autumn of 197 BCE had brought winds that yellowed the leaves early, matching the changing political atmosphere within the court. Liu Bang had grown increasingly fond of Liu Ruyi, his son by Lady Qi, while becoming disappointed with the gentle nature of Crown Prince Liu Ying. Lady Qi capitalized on this favor, pleading day and night for her son to be named heir.

When Liu Bang finally announced his intention to change the succession during court proceedings, the ministers reacted with shock and opposition. The emperor found himself confronted by unanimous disagreement from his advisors, who argued that changing the established succession would create instability.

From behind a curtain, Empress Lü listened in terror as her son’s future hung in the balance. Just when the situation seemed hopeless, minister Zhou Chang, despite his famous stammer, voiced his opposition so passionately that the emperor was moved to laughter and then reconsideration. Zhou’s declaration—”I know not how to speak well, but I know this must not be! If Your Majesty insists on replacing the crown prince, I cannot accept your decree!”—became legendary, illustrating how even speech impediments could not silence principled opposition.

The Legacy of Early Han Struggles

The turbulent early years of the Han Dynasty established patterns that would influence Chinese governance for centuries. The tension between centralized control and regional autonomy, the challenge of managing military commanders turned administrators, and the difficulty of maintaining stable succession—all these issues emerged clearly during Liu Bang’s reign.

The White Horse Oath specifically influenced Han political philosophy, establishing the Liu family’s exclusive claim to imperial power while creating a merit-based system for other elites. This balance between hereditary privilege and demonstrated ability would characterize the Han system of government throughout its four-century duration.

Empress Lü’s subsequent reign as regent would further test these principles. Her efforts to consolidate power through appointing members of her own family to important positions ultimately provoked a backlash after her death, leading to the restoration of Liu family control. Yet her political maneuvering demonstrated that women could exercise significant power within the imperial system, setting precedents for later empresses and regents.

Conclusion: The Fragility of Peace

The early Han period reminds us that political stability is often more fragile than it appears. Liu Bang’s military victories unified China, but creating lasting institutions required constant negotiation, adaptation, and sometimes force. The challenges he faced—managing ambitious subordinates, securing borders, establishing clear succession—have echoed throughout Chinese history and indeed in many societies transitioning from conflict to stability.

The name Chang’an—”Perpetual Peace”—represented not an achieved reality but an aspiration, a goal that required constant vigilance and adaptation to maintain. The unsteady throne of early Han China thus offers enduring lessons about the complex relationship between military victory, political consolidation, and the elusive pursuit of lasting peace.