Introduction: The Heartland of Early Imperial China

During the Qin (221-206 BCE) and Han (206 BCE-220 CE) dynasties, the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River formed the political and economic core of China. This region, encompassing modern Shaanxi, Henan, Shandong, southern Hebei, and parts of surrounding provinces, contained China’s most developed cities – administrative centers, commercial hubs, and military strongholds that shaped early imperial civilization. Archaeological surveys have identified approximately 445 urban sites from this period, offering unparalleled insights into China’s first centralized empires.

The Legacy of Warring States Cities

Most Qin-Han cities inherited foundations from earlier Warring States period (475-221 BCE) settlements. The Qin dynasty’s policy of “destroying famous cities” (堕名城) after unification targeted only select strategic centers, allowing most regional capitals to continue functioning. Key examples include:

– Linzi (Shandong): The 600-year-old Qi capital retained its dual-wall structure (大城和小城) with specialized zones for administration (小城) and industry/commerce (大城). Excavations revealed massive iron smelting complexes bearing “齐铁官丞” seals proving its status as a Han government production center.
– Handan (Hebei): Zhao kingdom’s former capital maintained its irregular rectangular layout. The “Wenming Hall” site likely corresponds to records of a palace built for Liu Ruyi, Han Gaozu’s son enfeoffed as King of Zhao.
– Xia County’s Yuwang City (Shanxi): This triple-walled complex (大城, 中城, 小城) evolved from a Wei state capital into the Han’s Hedong Commandery seat. Iron molds with “东三” inscriptions attest to advanced metallurgy.

Archaeological stratigraphy shows these cities maintained continuity despite political changes. Linzi’s bronze mirror workshops and Handan’s ceramic kilns operated across dynastic transitions, demonstrating economic resilience.

Han Urban Innovations

While reusing existing frameworks, the Han introduced new urban forms:

### 1. Princely Capitals
Thirteen identified vassal kingdom capitals blended administrative and royal functions. Distinctive features included:
– Qufu’s Lu State Capital (Shandong): Built within older Zhou-era walls, its northeastern palace complex covered 275,000 m². The “Lingguang Hall” mentioned in Han texts was partially excavated.
– Gaomi’s Chengyin City (Shandong): This 3.6 km² rectangular plan had six gates connected by 12m-wide roads paved with decorative bricks. Its southern “Wuzhao Gate” complex suggests ceremonial architecture.

### 2. County Seats and Specialized Towns
– Luoyang’s Henan County (Henan): This 5.7 km perimeter square-plan city contained stamped-earth walls (6.3m wide) and a 15m-wide central avenue. “河南太守章” seal impressions mark its administrative role.
– Dongpingling (Shandong): A 3.6 km² industrial hub with iron workshops bearing “大山二” inscriptions, matching Han records of its state-run factories.

### 3. Imperial Mausoleum Towns
– Changling Mausoleum Town (Shaanxi): Housing 180,000 relocated elites, its 2.2km western wall enclosed aristocratic districts. “齐-style” roof tiles confirm settlers from conquered Qi territories.

Spatial Organization and Urban Life

Excavated cities reveal sophisticated zoning:

1. Administrative Centers
– Typically located in elevated inner cities (e.g., Linzi’s 小城) or northern sectors (Gaomi)
– Identified by seal impressions (e.g., “齐采铁印” at Linzi), large foundations, and ritual artifacts

2. Industrial Quarters
– Iron/copper workshops clustered near rivers (Handan’s 3 iron sites along Zhang River)
– Coin minting areas (Linzi’s “半两” molds) often adjacent to official compounds

3. Residential Patterns
– Elite districts near palaces (Qufu’s northeastern elite housing)
– Commoner areas marked by smaller wells and utilitarian ceramics (Henan County’s east sector)

Road networks followed grid patterns, with main avenues (12-15m wide) connecting gates. Linzi’s drainage system – including 11km of underground channels – highlights advanced urban engineering.

Decline and Transformation

By Eastern Han (25-220 CE), many cities contracted:
– Linzi: Reduced to a commandery seat after Qi Kingdom’s 127 BCE dissolution
– Handan: Abandoned after Cao Cao made Ye capital in 204 CE
– Mausoleum Towns: Changling’s population dropped from 180,000 to <4,000 by 107 CE This reflected broader trends: declining central authority, economic localization, and aristocratic manors replacing urban markets. Yet these cities established templates influencing later Chinese urbanism, from Tang Chang'an to Ming Beijing.

Conclusion: Foundations of Chinese Urban Tradition

The Qin-Han Yellow River cities embodied China’s transition from feudalism to centralized bureaucracy. Their hybrid layouts – blending Warring States legacies with imperial innovations – created enduring models of urban governance, economic organization, and spatial hierarchy that would resonate for millennia. As excavation continues, these sites keep revealing new insights into how China’s earliest empires functioned at the grassroots level.