From Ancient Capitals to Commercial Hubs: China’s Urban Origins

Long before the Song dynasty (960-1279), China boasted prosperous urban centers during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods (770-221 BCE). Cities like Linzi, Handan, Yingdu, and Zhengcheng gained renown as wealthy commercial and political centers. However, these remained isolated nodes within a vast rural network rather than representing true urbanization. The agricultural economy still dominated, with cities serving primarily as administrative capitals and military strongholds rather than organic economic centers.

The Tang dynasty (618-907) maintained strict urban controls through the fangshi system – walled residential wards separated from designated market areas, with curfews and regulated business hours. Chang’an, the magnificent Tang capital, embodied this controlled urban ideal with its chessboard layout of 108 walled wards and two official markets, all arranged symmetrically along a central axis. Yet this artificial order came at a cost – southern wards remained sparsely populated, with open fields separating scattered homes.

The Song Transformation: When Markets Built Cities

The true urban revolution came during the Song period, marked by the explosive growth of shizhen – market towns. These settlements represented a fundamental shift in China’s urban development:

– Shi (markets): Originally temporary rural markets called “grass markets” or “fair markets,” these grew into permanent commercial centers as merchants and artisans settled nearby.
– Zhen (towns): Formerly military garrisons, these transformed into commercial hubs that often surpassed county seats in economic importance. The Song government defined them as “populated areas without county status but with tax revenue.”

Records indicate over 3,600 such market towns during the Song, many exceeding county capitals in population and wealth. This represented China’s first genuine urbanization, driven by economic forces rather than administrative fiat.

Two Traditions of Chinese Urbanization

Song China witnessed the maturation of two distinct urban development models:

1. The Administrative City (Cheng): Traditional capitals and county seats built around political and military functions. These featured:
– Planned layouts with walls and straight avenues
– Strict residential segregation (official vs. commoner wards)
– Designated market areas with regulated hours
– Curfews and restricted movement

2. The Commercial City (Shi): Organic settlements growing from market activity, characterized by:
– Irregular layouts following terrain and trade routes
– Mixed residential and commercial areas
– Minimal government oversight
– Open access and extended business hours

The Song saw commercial cities eclipse administrative ones in economic importance for the first time in Chinese history.

The Living City: Urban Society Takes Shape

Song cities developed vibrant, messy urban cultures that broke from classical traditions:

– The fangshi system collapsed as residents knocked down ward walls to open shops
– Streets became commercial thoroughfares with businesses operating at all hours
– Night markets flourished despite traditional curfews
– Specialized neighborhoods emerged for different trades and social groups
– Entertainment districts developed with theaters, teahouses, and restaurants

As the Qingming Shanghe Tu (Along the River During Qingming Festival) scroll vividly depicts, Song cities pulsed with commercial energy and social mixing unimaginable in earlier periods.

Governing the Ungovernable: Urban Management Challenges

The spontaneous growth of Song cities created novel governance dilemmas:

– Encroachment Issues: Merchants and residents constantly expanded into streets with unauthorized structures (qinjie)
– Government Responses:
– Strict punishment for powerful offenders (e.g., the 980 case of an official fined and caned for illegal construction)
– Relative leniency toward commoners’ minor encroachments
– Reluctance to displace residents for urban renewal projects
– Policy Evolution: Early attempts to restore Tang-style controls gave way to pragmatic acceptance of organic urban growth

Remarkably, Emperor Renzong (r. 1022-1063) chose to navigate crowded streets during processions rather than clear commoners’ homes – a striking departure from imperial norms.

The Urban-Rural Symbiosis

Song thinkers recognized cities as vital components of a new economic ecosystem:

– Cities consumed rural products (grain, fuel, raw materials)
– Cities supplied manufactured goods and services to the countryside
– Market towns became crucial intermediaries in this exchange
– Specialized production regions developed to serve urban markets

As one Song observer noted in Zhejiang’s Weitang town: tenants traded rice for daily necessities, while merchants aggregated goods for urban markets – a perfect illustration of this symbiotic relationship.

Legacy of the Song Urban Revolution

The Song urban transformation left enduring marks on Chinese civilization:

– Established commercial cities as legitimate urban forms alongside administrative centers
– Created models of urban self-governance that persisted through later dynasties
– Developed commercial practices and urban lifestyles that became characteristically Chinese
– Demonstrated the economic potential of relatively laissez-faire urban policies
– Inspired artistic and literary works celebrating urban life (like the Qingming scroll)

While later dynasties sometimes reimposed stricter controls, the Song proved cities could thrive as organic economic entities rather than just political creations. This lesson would resonate centuries later as China again urbanized rapidly in the modern era.

The Song urban experience reminds us that the most vibrant cities often grow from below rather than being imposed from above – a truth as relevant today as it was a millennium ago. In their messy vitality, Song cities pioneered an urban model that balanced commerce, community, and governance in ways that still feel remarkably modern.