The Shifting Tides of Command

As 1916 drew to a close, the Allied high command faced critical decisions about continuing the Somme offensive into the new year. However, French politicians had lost confidence in Marshal Joseph Joffre, leading to his ceremonial promotion to Marshal of France – effectively removing him from operational command. His replacement, General Robert Nivelle, had risen to prominence during the latter stages of the Battle of Verdun.

Nivelle brought a fundamentally different approach to warfare than his predecessor. He believed the tactics used during the French counteroffensive at Verdun – featuring massive artillery barrages followed by infantry assaults on limited objectives – could be expanded into a war-winning strategy. Nivelle envisioned these methods could achieve a decisive breakthrough against German positions on the Western Front.

The Nivelle Offensive and Its Aftermath

The French main attack would focus on the Chemin des Dames ridge in the Aisne region. Meanwhile, British forces under Field Marshal Douglas Haig were tasked with pinning down German forces around Arras. This arrangement resulted from a controversial agreement between Nivelle and Britain’s new Prime Minister, David Lloyd George, who had taken office in late 1916. The French-speaking Nivelle successfully convinced Lloyd George to place the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) under permanent French command – a decision announced unexpectedly at a February 1917 conference in Calais, creating one of the most severe civil-military crises in Britain during the entire war.

Meanwhile, German high command implemented a strategic withdrawal to the newly constructed Siegfried Stellung (known to the Allies as the Hindenburg Line) between March 16 and April 5. This shortened their front by about 25 miles and freed up 13 divisions as reserves. Allied forces pursued the retreating Germans across devastated terrain, though the withdrawal was conducted with typical German efficiency.

The Battle of Arras: Initial Success and Stalemate

On April 9, 1917 (Easter Monday), the BEF launched its assault at Arras with remarkable initial success. General Sir Edmund Allenby’s Third Army demonstrated the effectiveness of new tactics developed from the bitter lessons of the Somme. The 9th (Scottish) Division advanced 3.5 miles – the deepest penetration achieved in trench warfare to that point – while the 12th (Eastern) Division captured enemy guns in Battery Valley. On the left flank, Lieutenant-General Sir Julian Byng’s Canadian Corps captured the strategically vital Vimy Ridge.

However, Allenby’s premature order for immediate pursuit beyond artillery support range allowed German reinforcements to stabilize the front. By April 23, advances were measured in hundreds of yards, and the battle degenerated into attrition until May. British casualties reached 159,000 (the highest daily rate of the war for the BEF), with German losses estimated at 180,000.

The French Mutinies and Leadership Change

Nivelle’s offensive in the Aisne, launched on April 16, failed catastrophically despite his confident prediction of taking Laon within 24 hours. Although French forces advanced three miles by 1917 standards, German resistance on the Chemin des Dames ridge proved unbreakable. April became the bloodiest month for the French army since November 1914, with 134,000 casualties (including 30,000 dead). While inflicting significant German losses (28,500 prisoners and 187 guns captured), the offensive shattered French morale.

The result was widespread mutiny affecting 54 divisions. Soldiers refused orders (particularly to attack), sang revolutionary songs, and sometimes assaulted officers. These were not politically motivated revolts but expressions of exhaustion, despair over endless futile attacks, and concerns about families at home. General Philippe Pétain replaced Nivelle and carefully restored discipline through a mix of limited reforms and selective punishment (40-62 executions out of 550 death sentences). Fortunately, German forces failed to detect the French crisis, and the mutinies subsided by early July.

Passchendaele: The Third Battle of Ypres

The British launched their major 1917 offensive at Ypres, beginning with General Sir Herbert Plumer’s brilliantly executed capture of Messines Ridge (June 7-14). Nineteen mines containing 450 tons of explosives were detonated under German positions, achieving complete surprise. However, Haig transferred the main attack to General Sir Hubert Gough’s Fifth Army, believing Plumer too cautious.

Gough’s poorly planned assaults beginning July 31 quickly bogged down against German elastic defense in depth. Torrential rains turned the shell-cratered landscape into a quagmire, neutralizing British numerical superiority. By mid-August, Haig recognized his mistake and returned operational control to Plumer, who implemented successful “bite and hold” tactics at Menin Road Ridge (September 20), Polygon Wood (September 26), and Broodseinde (October 4).

When rains returned in October, the battlefield became impassable. The final phase saw Canadian troops under Lieutenant-General Sir Arthur Currie capture Passchendaele village at terrible cost (16,000 casualties as predicted). The campaign ended in December with approximately 260,000 casualties on each side – losses Germany could less afford. While controversial, the offensive achieved important strategic goals: relieving pressure on the French army and attriting German reserves.

Technological and Tactical Evolution

1917 witnessed significant military innovations:

– Artillery Revolution: The combination of improved maps, aerial photography, sound ranging, and flash spotting enabled accurate indirect fire beyond visual range. This “scientific gunnery” transformed artillery into the dominant battlefield weapon.
– Air-Ground Coordination: Aircraft evolved from reconnaissance platforms to integral components of combined arms warfare, performing close air support and battlefield interdiction.
– Tank Warfare: The Battle of Cambrai (November 20-December 5) demonstrated tanks’ potential when used en masse (476 deployed) with surprise and proper terrain. Though mechanical failures remained high, initial advances of five miles showed promise before German counterattacks regained most ground.

The Human Dimension of Trench Warfare

Between major offensives, soldiers endured the grinding routine of trench life:
– Dawn “stand-to” against possible attacks
– Constant repair of trenches and wire under sniper fire
– Nighttime patrols and supply carrying through dangerous communication trenches
– Rotations between front lines (1-2 weeks) and reserve positions
– Ever-present threat of random artillery fire (“the morning hate”)

Occasional unofficial truces occurred, especially in quiet sectors, but commanders discouraged such fraternization. As German lieutenant Ernst Jünger noted, even bitter enemies could briefly become trading partners during bad weather.

Strategic Consequences

By year’s end:
– French forces had recovered from mutiny but remained cautious under Pétain
– The BEF had borne the brunt of fighting, gaining experience but suffering heavy losses
– Germany maintained strong defenses but faced dwindling manpower reserves
– New technologies and tactics pointed toward future breakthroughs in 1918

The Western Front in 1917 proved a crucible of innovation and suffering, where traditional military methods collided with modern industrial warfare’s realities. While no decisive victory was achieved, the campaigns reshaped armies and doctrines, setting the stage for the war’s final act.