A Kingdom Divided: The Origins of Conflict

The years between October 1459 and May 1464 witnessed one of the most dramatic and perplexing periods in 15th century English history, where the wheel of fortune spun with unprecedented speed. This era of rapid political transformation during the Wars of the Roses saw the Yorkist faction rise from near destruction to ultimate victory, only to plant the seeds for future conflicts.

The roots of this turmoil stretched back to the mental incapacity of Henry VI and the subsequent power vacuum that divided England’s nobility. By 1459, tensions between the Lancastrian court party and the Yorkist opposition had reached a breaking point. The stage was set for a confrontation that would reshape the English monarchy.

The Coventry Parliament and Yorkist Exile

The political drama began in earnest with the Coventry Parliament of November 20, 1459. Though ostensibly called to address national concerns, its true purpose was to condemn the Yorkist lords – Richard, Duke of York; Richard Neville, Earl of Salisbury; and Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick – who had not even been summoned to attend.

The Parliament’s decision to attaint 27 Yorkist supporters by confiscating their estates and disinheriting their heirs marked an unprecedented escalation in political warfare. While some prominent Yorkist sympathizers like Walter Devereux, William Herbert, and William Hastings received pardons, the scale of punishment created unease among the nobility. The political tract “Somnium Vigilantis” emerged during this period, arguing passionately against rebellion while revealing the anxieties surrounding these severe measures.

Military Reversals and Yorkist Resurgence

Despite their initial setbacks after the Battle of Ludford Bridge in October 1459, the Yorkist leaders demonstrated remarkable resilience. Warwick successfully defended Calais against Somerset’s attacks, while in January 1460, Lancastrian attempts to reinforce their position were thwarted by Sir John Dynham’s raid on Sandwich. These military actions allowed the Yorkists to regain strategic ships and maintain their foothold in Calais – a crucial base for their eventual return.

By June 1460, the tide began to turn. Warwick, Salisbury, and York’s eldest son Edward, Earl of March, landed in Kent with a carefully crafted message of reform, harkening back to Jack Cade’s 1450 manifesto. Their march on London culminated in the pivotal Battle of Northampton on July 10, where royal forces were defeated through treachery when Lord Grey of Ruthin switched sides mid-battle. The Yorkists once again found themselves in control of the king, but this time York would make a bold move that would change the nature of the conflict entirely.

York’s Bid for the Throne

Richard of York’s delayed return from Ireland in September 1460 signaled his momentous decision. Entering Westminster with royal pretensions, he dramatically laid his hand on the empty throne on October 10, declaring his hereditary right through his descent from Lionel of Antwerp, Edward III’s second son.

The reaction was far from what York anticipated. Facing stunned silence rather than acclamation, he was forced to formalize his claim in writing. After weeks of political maneuvering, a compromise was reached on October 25 – the Act of Accord – which allowed Henry VI to remain king but named York as his heir, disinheriting Henry’s own son Edward of Westminster.

The Wakefield Disaster and Edward’s Rise

The compromise proved untenable. While York moved north to confront Lancastrian forces gathering under Queen Margaret, he fatally underestimated their strength. The December 30, 1460 Battle of Wakefield became a catastrophe for the Yorkists: Richard of York was killed in battle, his son Rutland murdered afterward, and Salisbury executed the following day. Their heads were displayed gruesomely on York’s gates, with York’s adorned with a paper crown in mockery of his ambitions.

This disaster propelled York’s eighteen-year-old son Edward into leadership. Demonstrating remarkable military prowess, Edward defeated Lancastrian forces at Mortimer’s Cross on February 2/3, 1461, turning an ominous celestial phenomenon (a parhelion appearing as three suns) into a propaganda victory by declaring it a sign of divine favor – the “sun in splendor” that would become his emblem.

The Road to Towton

Despite Warwick’s defeat at the Second Battle of St. Albans on February 17, 1461, London’s refusal to admit Queen Margaret’s northern army proved decisive. Edward and Warwick united their forces and entered the capital on February 26. With Henry VI’s authority fatally compromised by the violation of the Act of Accord, Edward was proclaimed king on March 1 in a carefully staged display of popular acclamation at St. John’s Field, formally taking the throne on March 4.

The new king’s first challenge came at the Battle of Towton on Palm Sunday, March 29, 1461 – likely the largest and bloodiest battle ever fought on English soil. Edward’s tactical brilliance, combined with Norfolk’s timely arrival and the advantage of weather conditions, resulted in a decisive Yorkist victory that decimated Lancastrian leadership. The deaths of Northumberland, Clifford, Dacre, and other prominent Lancastrians marked the effective end of organized resistance – for the moment.

Consolidating the Yorkist Regime (1461-1464)

Edward IV’s coronation on June 28, 1461 did not immediately bring peace. Lancastrian resistance continued, particularly in the north where Queen Margaret secured Scottish support in exchange for surrendering Berwick-upon-Tweed. French intervention in October 1462 under Pierre de Brézé briefly revived Lancastrian hopes, but Warwick and his brother John Neville, Lord Montagu, systematically reduced their strongholds.

Edward’s policy of reconciliation with former enemies like Henry Beaufort, Duke of Somerset, proved controversial and ultimately unsuccessful. Somerset’s eventual betrayal and death at Hexham in May 1464, along with the final reduction of Lancastrian strongholds like Bamburgh Castle, marked the true end of this phase of the wars.

The Seeds of Future Conflict

While Edward had demonstrated remarkable military skill and personal charisma during his rise to power, his regime’s stability depended heavily on Warwick’s military and political support. The earl’s expectation of greater influence created tensions that would eventually lead to renewed conflict. As one contemporary observed, while Warwick labored to secure the north, Edward appeared more interested in the pleasures of kingship than its responsibilities.

The period 1459-1464 transformed English politics, replacing a compromised Lancastrian monarchy with a vigorous young Yorkist king. Yet the very factors that enabled Edward’s rise – military success, noble support, and careful propaganda – would challenge his ability to establish lasting stability. The wheel of fortune had turned decisively in the Yorkists’ favor, but as subsequent events would prove, it had not stopped spinning.