The Twilight Years of a Warrior Emperor

By the late reign of Emperor Wu of Han (141–87 BCE), the once-vigorous ruler who expanded China’s borders to unprecedented lengths had become a shadow of his former self. Plagued by failing health and deepening superstition, the emperor grew convinced that witchcraft (巫蛊 wūgǔ) was being used to curse him. This paranoia would trigger one of the most devastating political purges in Chinese history, unraveling the very imperial family and military elite that had built the Han Dynasty’s golden age.

Historical records describe the aging emperor as increasingly hunched and frail, his nights haunted by visions of wooden effigies—the tools of ritual curses—swarming his chambers. Having spent decades consolidating absolute power through campaigns against the Xiongnu nomads and internal rivals, Emperor Wu now saw enemies in his most loyal supporters. The stage was set for a tragedy that would eclipse even his greatest battlefield victories.

The First Blood: The Fall of the Gongsun Clans

The witch-hunt began with two distinguished military families bearing the surname Gongsun—both intimately tied to Emperor Wu’s earlier triumphs.

### Gongsun Ao: From War Hero to “Witch”

In 96 BCE, Gongsun Ao—a childhood friend of the legendary general Wei Qing and fellow veteran of the Xiongnu wars—was accused after his wife was alleged to practice witchcraft. Despite having once risked his life to rescue Wei Qing from political persecution, Gongsun Ao and his entire clan were executed. This marked a chilling precedent: even imperial insiders weren’t safe.

### Chancellor Gongsun He: A Political Sacrifice

The second target was Gongsun He, a decorated cavalry commander married to Empress Wei Zifu’s elder sister. His 103 BCE appointment as chancellor was itself a scene of foreboding; knowing that six of his predecessors had died in office, Gongsun He wept openly while begging to decline the honor. His fears proved prophetic.

The downfall began when Gongsun He’s son, Gongsun Jingsheng, embezzled 19 million coins from the Northern Army’s funds—a grave crime given this force guarded the capital. To save his son, Gongsun He captured the notorious bandit Zhu Anshi, but the prisoner retaliated with a deadly accusation: he claimed the Gongsuns had buried cursed dolls along the emperor’s route to the Ganquan Palace.

In 91 BCE, both Gongsun He and his son died in prison, followed by mass executions of their clan. The purge soon expanded to include:
– Two princesses (daughters of Empress Wei)
– The eldest son of General Wei Qing
– Hundreds of nobles and officials

Coup of the Opportunists: Jiang Chong’s Deadly Gambit

As the witchcraft hysteria escalated, the villainous official Jiang Chong saw an opportunity. Having previously clashed with Crown Prince Liu Ju, Jiang recognized that Emperor Wu’s paranoia could be weaponized against the heir apparent.

### Exploiting the Emperor’s Weaknesses

Jiang Chong played on three vulnerabilities:
1. Superstition: After dreaming of wooden attackers, Emperor Wu became convinced curses caused his ailments.
2. Distrust of the Weis: The purge had already weakened Empress Wei’s faction.
3. Legal Ambiguity: Witchcraft accusations required no physical evidence—only suspicion.

### The Capital Under Siege

Appointed to investigate, Jiang Chong and a Xiongnu shaman terrorized Chang’an:
– They planted cursed dolls in homes of political targets.
– Over 10,000 people were arrested or killed across the empire.
– Torture extracted false confessions, widening the net.

When Jiang Chong “discovered” dolls in the crown prince’s palace, Liu Ju had no choice but to rebel—a doomed uprising that ended with the prince’s suicide and Empress Wei’s execution.

Cultural Cataclysm: How Witchcraft Hysteria Reshaped Han Society

The witchcraft trials exposed fault lines in Han governance and belief systems:

### The Dark Side of Legalism

Emperor Wu’s state combined Confucian ideals with Legalist ruthlessness. Concepts like “secret malice” (腹诽 fùfěi)—punishing unspoken dissent—created a culture where accusations equaled guilt.

### Folk Religion vs. State Orthodoxy

The crisis revealed how Daoist folk practices (like protective charms) could be reframed as treason. Shamanism, once tolerated, became a political liability.

### The Fracturing of Trust

With families denouncing each other to survive, the social contract between ruler and elite dissolved. The historian Sima Qian, himself a victim of castration for defending a disgraced general, documented this moral collapse in Records of the Grand Historian.

Legacy: Lessons from Emperor Wu’s Reign of Terror

The witchcraft persecutions left enduring marks:

### Political Consequences

– Succession Crisis: With Liu Ju dead, the throne eventually passed to young Emperor Zhao under a regency.
– Military Decline: Executing veterans like the Gongsuns weakened Han defenses.

### Historical Parallels

The events echo other autocrats’ late-reign purges, from Stalin’s Great Purge to Qin Shi Huang’s scholar executions. Absolute power, it seems, breeds absolute paranoia.

### Modern Resonances

Contemporary discussions about “fake news” and mass hysteria find precedent in how Jiang Chong manipulated Emperor Wu’s fears. The trials remind us how easily legal systems can become tools of oppression.

In the end, Emperor Wu issued a remarkable Lun Tai edict in 89 BCE—a self-criticism acknowledging his wasteful campaigns and the witchcraft persecutions’ folly. Yet for the thousands dead, including his own family, the reckoning came too late. The greatest tragedy of the witchcraft trials wasn’t just their brutality, but how they revealed even history’s mightiest rulers could become prisoners of their own darkest instincts.