The Historical Context of the Xia Dynasty

Contemporary scholarship generally places the Xia Dynasty within the chronological framework of the 21st to 16th centuries BCE. The Xia-Shang-Zhou Chronology Project estimates its duration from approximately 2070 to 1600 BCE. Archaeological evidence suggests that the Erlitou culture, dating from the mid-19th to mid-16th centuries BCE, represents the middle-to-late phases of Xia civilization, with its latest phase (Phase IV) already transitioning into the early Shang period.

The search for early Xia culture has led scholars to focus on the late Longshan period. Decades of archaeological research demonstrate that the core typology of the Erlitou culture developed from the Wangwan Phase III culture in western Henan through an intermediary “Xinzhai Phase.” Consequently, the Wangwan Phase III culture and Xinzhai Phase remains—distributed within the Xia’s central territories, chronologically aligned with the Xia period, and showing clear cultural continuity with Erlitou—are likely the material remains of the pre-dynastic and early dynastic Xia people.

The Wangwan Phase III Culture: Foundation of Xia Civilization

### Distribution and Chronology

Named after the Wangwan site in Luoyang, the Wangwan Phase III culture centered around the Luoyang Plain and Songshan region. Key excavated sites include:
– Wangwan and Cuoli in Luoyang
– Xiaopangou in Mengjin
– Meishan in Ruzhou
– Wangchenggang in Dengfeng
– Wadian in Yuzhou

Three significant walled settlements have been discovered, with the Dengfeng Wangchenggang and Xinmi Guchengzhai sites being particularly noteworthy. The Wangchenggang site features eastern and western walled enclosures (the eastern largely destroyed by flooding), with the western enclosure measuring 82.4m (south wall) and 92m (west wall). Ritual foundation pits containing human and animal sacrifices, along with bronze fragments, have been uncovered. Radiocarbon dating places its construction between 2132–2030 BCE.

The 176,500 m² Guchengzhai site, discovered in 1997, preserves remarkably intact rammed-earth walls standing several meters high, with a 30–40m wide moat and palatial architecture featuring corridor foundations.

### Material Culture

Architecture:
– Rectangular surface structures with wooden-framed walls plastered with clay
– Semi-subterranean round/square dwellings with lime-plastered floors
– Circular huikeng (ash pits), often bag-shaped

Artifacts:
– Stone tools: Shovels, knives, sickles, axes, arrows
– Ceramics: Dominated by gray ware (sand-tempered and fine-paste), with polished black ware. Decorated with basket, square, and cord patterns.
– Typical vessels: Tripod ding cauldrons, deep-bellied jars, zeng steamers, stemmed dou plates, and jue-like pitchers.

Regional variations exist between the Zheng-Luo area (Wangwan type) and southern Songshan region (Meishan type), particularly in ceramic styles and settlement patterns.

The Xinzhai Phase: Bridging Longshan and Erlitou

First identified at the Xinzhai site in Xinmi, this transitional phase (exemplified by Meishan H30 and Xinzhai H3/H7 strata) shows characteristics of both Wangwan Phase III and early Erlitou cultures. Key features include:
– Circular ash pits transitioning from bag-shaped to straight-walled forms
– Ceramics with increasing rope patterns alongside traditional basket/square designs
– Hybrid vessel forms like flat-bottomed ding and guan jars

Stratigraphic sequences at multiple sites confirm the progression:
Wangwan Phase III → Xinzhai Phase → Erlitou Culture

Erlitou Culture: The Apogee of Xia Civilization

Discovered in 1959, the Erlitou site revealed four consecutive phases (I–IV) representing a continuous cultural development. The Erlitou type, centered in the Yiluo-Songshan region, directly descended from the Xinzhai Phase.

Cultural Continuities:
– Ceramic traditions: Gray ware dominance, evolving decorative motifs
– Architectural techniques: Rammed-earth foundations, oriented structures
– Ritual practices: Jade zhang blades, bronze jue vessels

The striking similarity between Erlitou Phase I and late Longshan ceramics confirms this cultural lineage.

The Ethnic Identity of Archaeological Cultures

### Chronological Correlations

Using the Bamboo Annals’ record of 471 Xia years and the Shang’s established start at ~1600 BCE, the Xia founding would align with ~2070 BCE—within Wangwan Phase III’s late period (2132–2030 BCE). This matches traditional accounts locating early Xia capitals (Yangcheng, Yangdi) in the Dengfeng-Yuzhou region.

### Geographic Correlations

Ancient texts consistently place early Xia activity in:
– The Songshan region (Yangcheng/Yangdi)
– The Luoyang Plain (Zhenxun, purported last Xia capital)

This overlaps perfectly with Wangwan Phase III and Xinzhai distributions, suggesting these were indeed Xia material cultures.

Legacy and Modern Significance

The identification of Wangwan Phase III and Xinzhai remains as pre-dynastic/early Xia cultures, evolving into the Erlitou civilization, provides concrete evidence for China’s first dynasty. This research:
1. Validates traditional historical accounts through archaeology
2. Demonstrates the indigenous development of Chinese civilization
3. Offers a model for correlating archaeological cultures with ancient ethnic groups

Ongoing excavations at sites like Xinzhai continue to refine our understanding of this critical transition from Neolithic to Bronze Age society. The Xia’s legacy as the foundational dynasty—with its advances in metallurgy, urbanism, and statecraft—resonates through subsequent Chinese history.