Fraternal Rivalry and Court Factions in the Xianfeng Era
The tumultuous reign of Emperor Xianfeng (1850-1861) witnessed one of the most dramatic power struggles in Qing dynasty history, centered around the bitter rivalry between the emperor and his brother Prince Gong (Yixin). This fraternal conflict had its roots in the succession crisis following the death of their father, the Daoguang Emperor, when both princes were considered strong candidates for the throne. Though Xianfeng ultimately ascended, he delayed granting Yixin the title of Prince Gong for three years, revealing deep-seated animosity from the outset.
The relationship experienced temporary thaws when Xianfeng appointed Prince Gong to key positions including Grand Council member, Commander of the Banner Forces, and Director of the Imperial Clan Court. However, tensions flared again over the status of Prince Gong’s mother. When Xianfeng refused to grant her the title of Empress Dowager and later separated her burial from the Daoguang Emperor, the brothers’ relationship ruptured completely. Xianfeng removed Prince Gong from the Grand Council and stripped him of all offices, even refusing to participate in memorial ceremonies for Prince Gong’s mother.
The outbreak of the Second Opium War (1856-1860) forced temporary cooperation between the brothers. During the crisis, Xianfeng appointed Prince Gong as Imperial Commissioner to negotiate with foreign powers while the emperor fled to the Rehe hunting lodge. This apparent trust masked deeper suspicions – Xianfeng was testing his brother’s loyalty. When Prince Gong successfully negotiated the Convention of Peking (1860), Xianfeng rebuked him harshly for allowing foreign representatives to meet with an imperial prince, revealing his lingering distrust.
The Rise of New Factions and the Su-Shun Clique
Xianfeng’s reign saw significant turnover in the imperial bureaucracy as he replaced Daoguang-era officials with his own loyalists. The emperor’s inner circle included:
– Su-Shun: Chief confidant and de facto prime minister
– Zaiyuan: Political pillar of the regime
– Duanhua: Commander of imperial guards
– Muyin: Key figure in military and foreign affairs
– Kuang Yuan: Financial administrator
– Du Han: Diligent administrator
– Jiao Youying: Primary document drafter
This new faction orchestrated the purge of seven Daoguang-era grand secretaries through executions or dismissals, creating bitter divisions between old and new elites. The most powerful figure, Su-Shun, developed a particularly lethal rivalry with the ambitious imperial consort Yehenara (later Empress Dowager Cixi). Initially favored by Xianfeng, Yehenara gained unprecedented influence by reviewing memorials and advising on policy – violating traditional prohibitions against imperial women interfering in state affairs.
The conflict between Su-Shun and Yehenara escalated during the Second Opium War crisis. When Yehenara suggested consulting Prince Gong (against Su-Shun’s advice), it planted seeds of lasting enmity. During the chaotic retreat to Rehe, Su-Shun openly insulted Yehenara over transportation arrangements and food provisions. Most dangerously, Su-Shun later advised Xianfeng to eliminate Yehenara by invoking the “Lady Gouyi precedent” from Han dynasty history – where Emperor Wu had executed his heir’s mother to prevent future interference. Only desperate pleas from Yehenara’s relatives spared her life.
The Formation of Competing Power Centers
The court’s relocation to Rehe during the foreign crisis created two distinct power factions:
The Rehe Faction (led by Su-Shun):
– Core members: Zaiyuan, Duanhua, Su-Shun
– Comprised officials who accompanied Xianfeng to Rehe
– Controlled access to the emperor
– Opposed returning to Beijing
The Beijing Faction (led by Prince Gong):
– Included officials who remained in the capital
– Negotiated treaties with foreign powers
– Advocated for the court’s return to Beijing
– Gained support from foreign diplomats
This geographical division exacerbated existing conflicts between Prince Gong and Su-Shun, which evolved from personal grudges to policy disputes and finally to a struggle for supreme power. A key flashpoint occurred when Su-Shun investigated corruption in the Board of Revenue, targeting Prince Gong’s household staff as an indirect attack on the prince himself.
The Xinyou Coup of 1861
The political crisis reached its climax following Xianfeng’s death in August 1861. The emperor’s will appointed eight regents (led by Su-Shun) to govern for his young heir, conspicuously excluding Prince Gong. This final snub pushed the fraternal conflict into open confrontation.
In a bold move, the two empress dowagers (including Yehenara, now Cixi) secretly summoned Prince Gong to Rehe. Their hour-long meeting laid plans to eliminate the regents. Prince Gong insisted action must wait until the court returned to Beijing and secured foreign support – he had already obtained assurances from Western diplomats.
The coup unfolded with precision:
1. Provocation: Censor Dong Yuanchun memorialized requesting the empresses dowager to rule behind screens (a violation of Qing tradition) and Prince Gong’s inclusion in government. This tested political waters.
2. Reaction: The regents angrily rejected these proposals, overplaying their hand by stopping official business in protest until their rebuttal was issued.
3. Preparation: The Beijing faction quietly mobilized military support from commanders Sengge Rinchen and Shengbao while drafting charges against the regents.
4. Disarmament: Under pretext of relieving overworked officials, the empresses dowager stripped the regents of their military commands – including the critical Beijing Gendarmerie.
5. Execution: After the court returned to Beijing, Prince Gong had the regents arrested (September 1861). Su-Shun was beheaded, while Zaiyuan and Duanhua were permitted to commit suicide.
The New Political Order and Empress Dowager Cixi’s Rise
The coup’s aftermath established a new power structure:
– Prince Gong became Prince-Regent and head of the Grand Council
– The two empresses dowager began ruling behind screens
– The reign title changed to “Tongzhi” (meaning “joint rule”)
– Supporters of the ousted regents were purged
On November 2, 1861, the empresses dowager formally began their regency with elaborate ceremonies in the Hall of Mental Cultivation. The eleven-point protocol for their rule included:
1. Handling of major state rituals
2. Procedures for receiving officials
3. Appointment processes for high officials
4. Examination administration
5. Educational arrangements for the young emperor
Contemporary accounts describe the scene: the boy emperor sat before a yellow silk screen while the empresses dowager listened behind it, with Prince Gong standing nearby to assist.
Consolidating Power: The Purges of He Guiqing and Shengbao
To solidify their authority, the new regents made examples of two prominent officials:
He Guiqing (Governor-General of Liangjiang):
– Abandoned Changzhou to Taiping forces in 1860
– Ordered troops to fire on civilians blocking his retreat
– Despite lobbying by supporters, he was executed in December 1862
Shengbao (Military Commander):
– Hero of the Second Opium War
– Instrumental in the Xinyou Coup
– Became arrogant, comparing himself to famous Han generals
– Accused of corruption, military failures, and improprieties
– Ordered to commit suicide in August 1863
These executions sent a clear message about the new regime’s intolerance for disloyalty or incompetence, establishing Cixi’s reputation for ruthless political acumen.
Legacy and Historical Significance
The Xinyou Coup marked several critical developments in late Qing history:
1. Break from Tradition: The unprecedented regency of two empresses dowager violated Manchu prohibitions against female rule, creating a model Cixi would use repeatedly.
2. Foreign Relations: Prince Gong’s cooperation with Western powers established the Zongli Yamen (foreign affairs office) and began the “Tongzhi Restoration” modernization efforts.
3. Power Structure: The partnership between Cixi and Prince Gong created an effective (if tense) governing arrangement that stabilized the dynasty temporarily.
4. Future Implications: Cixi’s political education during this crisis shaped her approach to power for the next forty years, demonstrating both strategic brilliance and ruthlessness.
The events of 1861 represented a pivotal transition – from Xianfeng’s troubled reign to a new era where imperial women, princes, and foreign powers would all contend for influence over a weakening Qing state. The patterns established during this crisis would recur throughout the late imperial period until the dynasty’s final collapse in 1911.