The Death of an Emperor and the Birth of a Power Struggle

In the autumn of 1860, as Anglo-French expeditionary forces breached Beijing’s defenses and set the Old Summer Palace ablaze, Emperor Xianfeng fled to the Chengde Mountain Resort. The humiliation of foreign troops desecrating the imperial capital, combined with his deteriorating health, proved too much for the sovereign. By August 1861, the emperor had succumbed to illness and despair, leaving behind a fragile empire and a five-year-old heir.

Xianfeng’s death created an immediate power vacuum that would determine the future of the Qing dynasty. Three distinct factions emerged to fill this void, each with competing visions for China’s governance. The first consisted of eight regents led by Sushun, appointed by the dying emperor to guide his young son. The second faction centered around Prince Gong, the emperor’s sixth brother nicknamed “Little Sixth,” who commanded significant influence among the imperial clan. The third group comprised the emperor’s widow, Empress Dowager Ci’an, and his consort, Empress Dowager Cixi, mother of the child emperor.

This triangular struggle would ultimately reshape Chinese politics for nearly half a century, beginning with what became known as the Xinyou Coup of 1861.

The Regents and Their Authority

Sushun and his seven fellow regents held what appeared to be the strongest position following Xianfeng’s death. The late emperor had explicitly charged them with guiding his son and heir, who was crowned under the reign name Qixiang. As official regents, they controlled daily governance and held authority over imperial decrees.

The regents represented the conservative wing of the Qing court, resistant to the sweeping changes that many argued were necessary following China’s humiliating defeat in the Second Opium War. Their leadership style proved authoritarian, particularly in their treatment of Manchu officials whom they frequently dismissed as incompetent. Ironically, Sushun himself reportedly acknowledged this prejudice, once remarking during a drinking session that “our Banner men contain many scoundrels—what do they know? The Han Chinese cannot be offended, for they possess the writing brush,” suggesting that historical records would be shaped by Han scholars.

This contempt for their fellow Manchus would later undermine their support among the imperial clan, particularly with Prince Gong’s faction.

The Imperial Women: Ci’an and Cixi

Following established Qing tradition, the emperor’s principal widow Ci’an received the title “Mother Empress Dowager,” while the birth mother of the new emperor, Cixi, was honored as “Holy Mother Empress Dowager.” These titles conferred prestige but traditionally little political power.

The ambitious Cixi, however, had no intention of remaining a ceremonial figure. Historical accounts suggest she admired powerful female rulers from Chinese history, particularly Empress Wu Zetian of the Tang Dynasty, who had ruled China as emperor in her own right. Cixi recognized that the regents’ control over her young son meant control over the empire, and she bristled at their exclusion of her from state affairs.

When Cixi initially suggested to the regents that as the emperor’s mother she should participate in governance, Sushun rebuffed her with a traditional proverb: “Have you ever heard of a hen crowing at dawn?” Another regent invoked the cautionary tales of Empress Lü and Wu Zetian, noting that their families had been exterminated after their deaths—a thinly veiled threat about the consequences of overreaching ambition.

This confrontation reportedly left Cixi trembling with rage, the child emperor so frightened that he urinated on her robes. The incident cemented her determination to eliminate the regents.

Prince Gong and the Imperial Clan

While the regents controlled the court at Chengde, Prince Gong remained in Beijing, where he had negotiated the Convention of Beijing with the British and French. His successful diplomacy, though resulting in unfavorable terms for China, had ended the immediate military threat and given him valuable experience dealing with foreign powers.

Prince Gong represented a more pragmatic approach to China’s challenges. He recognized the need for modernization and better relations with foreign powers, positioning him against the conservative regents. His presence in Beijing also gave him control over the capital’s administration and whatever military forces remained there following the foreign occupation.

The imperial clan largely supported Prince Gong, resenting the regents’ concentration of power and their mistreatment of Manchu officials. This support would prove crucial in the coming power struggle.

The Establishment of the Zongli Yamen

Even before the final confrontation between the factions, the Qing government had taken a significant step toward institutional change. In late 1860, pressured by the realities of foreign interaction, the court abolished the traditional Lifan Yuan .

Though nominally concerned with trade, the Zongli Yamen effectively became China’s first foreign ministry, handling diplomacy with Western powers. This institution would become the most powerful government organ in the late Qing era, overseeing modernization efforts, foreign relations, and eventually even domestic policy.

Prince Gong naturally assumed leadership of this critical new institution, further strengthening his position relative to the regents at Chengde.

The Conspiracy Unfolds

Recognizing that she lacked the military power to challenge the regents directly, Cixi approached the more cautious Empress Dowager Ci’an. “Elder Sister,” she argued, “I fear Sushun and his men are not virtuous. If we don’t deal with them, we orphans and widows will suffer endless troubles.” When Ci’an expressed concern about their lack of military support, Cixi revealed that she had already sent trusted eunuchs to summon Prince Gong to Chengde.

The regents were astonished when Prince Gong arrived at the mountain resort. They challenged his unauthorized departure from Beijing, but he deflected their concerns by stating he had come to pay respects to his deceased brother. During his brief stay, Prince Gong managed to communicate extensively with the empresses dowager, though the content of their discussions remained secret.

After Prince Gong’s return to Beijing, Cixi pressed the regents to transport Xianfeng’s coffin back to the capital. She proposed that Sushun alone accompany the heavy procession along the main road while the other seven regents traveled with the imperial household via a faster route. The regents, apparently suspecting no treachery, agreed to this arrangement.

The Coup and Its Aftermath

While Sushun slowly accompanied the funeral procession, Cixi, Ci’an, the child emperor, and the seven regents hurried ahead to Beijing. Upon arrival, Cixi immediately acted, issuing edicts in the emperor’s name that dismissed the eight regents from their positions. The seven regents who had accompanied her were arrested immediately, while messengers were dispatched to intercept and arrest Sushun.

The regents were charged with various crimes, including fraudulently issuing edicts and mishandling the peace negotiations with foreign powers. Sushun was executed by beheading—a particularly humiliating punishment for someone of his status—while two other leading regents were ordered to commit suicide. The remaining five were exiled or imprisoned.

With the regents eliminated, Cixi organized a new coronation ceremony for her son, changing his reign name to Tongzhi, meaning “joint rule,” signaling that the empresses dowager would reign alongside the emperor. At age twenty-six, Cixi had achieved what few women in Chinese history had accomplished: direct control over the imperial government.

Historical Significance of the Xinyou Coup

The 1861 coup, named for the lunar year in which it occurred, represents one of the most significant political transitions in late Qing history. It marked the beginning of what historians would later call the “Tongzhi Restoration,” a period of attempted reforms and modernization.

The coup brought to power a leadership more open to dealing with foreign powers and implementing limited reforms. Prince Gong, now appointed Prince-Regent, worked with the empresses dowager to stabilize the regime and address both internal rebellions and external pressures.

Cixi’s victory established a pattern of rule that would continue long after the Tongzhi emperor came of age. Her political acumen in orchestrating the coup demonstrated skills that would maintain her dominance over Qing politics for forty-seven years, through the reigns of two emperors.

The elimination of the conservative regents removed significant opposition to modernization efforts, though the pace of reform would remain a contentious issue throughout the late Qing period. The Zongli Yamen, under Prince Gong’s leadership, would facilitate various self-strengthening initiatives, including the establishment of modern arsenals, shipyards, and bureaus.

Cultural and Political Legacy

The Xinyou Coup fundamentally altered the Qing power structure and established unprecedented political influence for imperial women. Cixi’s success created a model of behind-the-scenes leadership that would characterize her long reign, even after she ostensibly retired from direct governance.

The coup also illustrated the declining power of traditional Manchu aristocracy against more pragmatic leadership. Prince Gong’s faction, which included both Manchu modernizers and talented Han Chinese officials, represented a shift toward merit-based governance that would continue to develop in subsequent decades.

Historians continue to debate the ultimate impact of Cixi’s seizure of power. Some argue that her conservative approach ultimately hindered China’s modernization, while others note that she eventually supported significant reforms. What remains undeniable is that her political career, beginning with the Xinyou Coup, shaped China’s response to the challenges of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.

The events of 1861 established the political dynamics that would prevail until the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1912, making the Xinyou Coup a critical turning point in China’s transition from traditional empire to modern nation-state.