The Strategic Landscape of Late Ming Resistance

In the turbulent mid-17th century, as the Qing dynasty consolidated its rule over China, the remnants of the Ming loyalists mounted increasingly desperate resistance. By 1658, the Yongli Emperor’s court—the last hope of the Ming revival—faced imminent collapse as Qing forces advanced in a three-pronged assault on southwestern China. This critical juncture presented an opportunity for Zheng Chenggong (known in the West as Koxinga), the preeminent Ming loyalist commander in the southeast.

Zheng’s strategic vision recognized that the Qing concentration of forces in the southwest left their Yangtze River defenses vulnerable. The Yangtze delta region, China’s economic heartland and the former site of the Ming southern capital at Nanjing, represented both a symbolic and strategic prize. Historical precedent weighed heavily—the Ming founder Zhu Yuanzhang had used Nanjing as his base to unify China nearly three centuries earlier. For Zheng, capturing this region could potentially reverse the tide of the Qing conquest.

Mobilization and Early Setbacks

In May 1658, Zheng launched his ambitious northern expedition. His deputy Gan Hui led the vanguard to Shacheng in Fujian province, while Zheng himself commanded the main force from Cen Island. By early June, Zheng’s combined forces—reportedly comprising tens of thousands of troops and hundreds of ships—launched coordinated attacks on Rui’an county in Wenzhou prefecture. Contemporary Qing documents describe the terrifying spectacle: “Their ships numbered in the thousands, their armored soldiers in the tens of thousands… their encampments stretched over forty li, their cooking fires blotted out the sky.”

The campaign’s first major setback came in August at Yangshan Island, a critical junction in the shipping lanes between Zhejiang and Jiangsu. As Zheng convened his commanders to discuss strategy, a sudden typhoon struck with catastrophic force. The storm claimed the lives of six of Zheng’s concubines, three of his sons, and countless soldiers and ships. This natural disaster forced Zheng to abort the initial campaign and retreat to Zhoushan for regrouping.

Reorganization and Renewed Determination

The winter of 1658-59 saw Zheng’s forces consolidating their position along the Zhejiang coast while making crucial strategic adjustments. Two key decisions would significantly impact the coming campaign:

1. Strengthening Base Defenses: Learning from the Qing’s opportunistic attack on his Fujian bases during his absence, Zheng reinforced garrisons at Xiamen, Jinmen, and other strongholds. Qing intelligence reports later noted substantial forces left behind under commanders like Huang Ting and Chen Bao.

2. The Controversial Family Policy: In an unprecedented move, Zheng ordered his officers to bring their families on campaign. While intended to boost morale—”so they may campaign without domestic concerns”—this decision drew criticism. Contemporary poet Xu Fuyuan satirized the measure in verse, questioning the wisdom of mixing military operations with domestic life.

The 1659 Campaign: March on Nanjing

By February 1659, Zheng had regrouped his forces at Panshiwei. His strategic assumptions appeared sound:

– Qing forces in the Yangtze region were reportedly thin, with only a small Manchu garrison under Commander Kaka Mu in Nanjing
– Underground Ming loyalists like Wei Geng reported strong anti-Qing sentiment among Jiangnan’s literati and commoners
– Control of the Yangtze delta could economically strangle the Qing regime while providing resources for further campaigns
– The symbolic value of retaking Nanjing—the former Ming capital—could galvanize nationwide resistance

The campaign’s initial phases saw success as Zheng’s fleet entered the Yangtze in May 1659, bypassing Qing defenses. His strategy relied on naval mobility and the element of surprise, aiming to quickly isolate and overwhelm Nanjing before Qing reinforcements could arrive.

Cultural Impact and Historical Legacy

The Yangtze River Campaign represented more than a military operation—it was the culmination of Zheng Chenggong’s vision for Ming restoration. The decision to bring families reflected his confidence in imminent victory and plans for long-term governance. Contemporary accounts describe the surreal spectacle of a “floating city” moving upriver, with military formations interspersed with civilian vessels carrying soldiers’ families.

The campaign’s ultimate failure (after initial successes) stemmed from several factors: overextension of supply lines, underestimation of Qing response capabilities, and the inherent difficulties of transitioning from naval to land operations. Yet its audacity captured the imagination of generations.

Modern Relevance and Historical Assessment

Today, the 1659 Yangtze Campaign occupies a complex place in historical memory. In mainland China, it’s often framed as a heroic but doomed resistance against foreign conquest. In Taiwan, where Zheng later established his base, the campaign symbolizes the persistence of Chinese cultural identity under pressure.

Military historians debate Zheng’s strategic choices—particularly the family policy—while recognizing his innovative use of naval power. The campaign demonstrated how amphibious operations could challenge land-based empires, anticipating later maritime strategies.

The Yangtze River Campaign marked both the high point and turning point of Zheng Chenggong’s career. Though failing to dislodge the Qing, it cemented his reputation as China’s most formidable resistance leader and set the stage for his subsequent establishment of a Ming loyalist regime in Taiwan. The campaign’s blend of bold strategy, personal tragedy, and cultural symbolism continues to resonate as a pivotal moment in the transition from Ming to Qing rule.