The Archaeological Landscape of Middle Shang Burials

The Middle Shang period (circa 1450-1300 BCE) presents archaeologists with a complex burial landscape that reveals much about early Chinese civilization. Unlike the well-organized royal cemeteries of the late Shang at Yinxu, Middle Shang tombs are typically scattered bronze vessel graves and small burials near residential areas, making systematic study challenging from a cemetery system perspective. However, significant clusters have emerged that shed light on the period’s social structure.

At Panlongcheng, an important Shang city, archaeologists discovered three large tombs on Lijiazui, a small island east of the city walls. The most notable, Panli M2, dates to Early Shang Phase III, while the flanking tombs M1 and M3, though damaged, appear contemporary or slightly later (Middle Shang Phase I). These likely constituted the elite burial ground for Panlongcheng’s ruling class. Meanwhile, areas west (Louziwan) and north (Yangjiazhui and Yangjiawan) of the city contained tombs of lower-ranking nobles and commoners, establishing a clear spatial hierarchy in death that mirrored social divisions in life.

Evolution of Middle Shang Burial Customs

Middle Shang funerary practices largely continued Early Shang traditions while introducing important innovations. Rectangular earthen pit tombs with wooden coffins remained standard, while urn burials were rare. The most significant development was the increasing prevalence of waist pits (yaokeng), especially in medium-sized tombs.

At the Gaocheng Taixi site, waist pits appeared in 28.6% of Middle Shang Phase II tombs, jumping to 48.1% in Phase III. This trend continued into the Late Shang, when 60% of Yinxu tombs featured waist pits. These square or rectangular pits beneath the deceased typically contained a sacrificed dog, possibly for spiritual protection or status display.

Burial positions showed continuity:
– Supine extended (most common)
– Prone extended or flexed
– Lateral (rare)

Grave goods served as clear status markers. Higher-status tombs (Classes I-II) featured bronze ritual vessels as primary offerings, while Class III tombs included bronzes as accents. Class IV tombs contained only ceramics, and Class V had no offerings at all.

The Changing Language of Grave Goods

The composition of burial assemblages evolved significantly during the Middle Shang, reflecting changing ritual practices and social values:

Middle Shang Phase I:
– Ceramic tombs: li tripods, basins, dou stemmed dishes, jia tripods, guan jars, and gui tureens
– Bronze tombs: gu beakers and jue cups emerged as core ritual vessels, often in matched sets (equal numbers of gu and jue, sometimes supplemented with lacquer, pottery, or ivory versions)
– Common bronze combinations: gu+jue; gu+jue+jia; gu+jue+jia+ding tripods; gu+jue+jia+ding+zun

Middle Shang Phase II:
– Ceramic tombs: li tripods dominated (66.7% at Taixi), with deep basins (9.4%), and occasional gui or dou
– Bronze tombs: gu and jue became even more prominent, with jia decreasing
– New combinations: gu+jue; gu+jue+jia+ding; gu+jue+zun

Middle Shang Phase III:
– Regional variations increased
– Ceramic tombs: fewer single li tripods, more storage vessels (basins, yu jars, gui)
– Significant development: ceramic ritual vessels (gu, jue, jia) appeared in Anyang-area tombs
– Bronze tombs: ritual wine vessels remained core, with bu jars becoming characteristic
– Elaborate combinations emerged: gu+jue+jia+ding+bu+zun; gu+jue+jia+zun+pen

The pairing of gu and jue vessels became standardized, a tradition that would persist through the Shang dynasty. This likely reflected the growing importance of ritual wine consumption in elite culture and ancestor worship.

Decoding Social Hierarchy Through Tomb Classification

Middle Shang tombs can be categorized into five classes that reveal a finely graded social hierarchy:

Class I: The Supreme Elite
– Tomb area: ~10+ m²
– Features: inner/outer coffins, waist pit
– Grave goods: dozens of bronzes, including 3-5 gu/jue/jia sets
– Example: Panli M1 (though looted, contained 22 bronze vessels including 5 jue, 5 jia, 3 gu)

Class II: Middle-Ranking Nobles
– Tomb dimensions: ~2m long, ~1m wide
– Features: coffin, waist pit, occasional human sacrifices
– Grave goods: <10 bronze vessels (1-3 gu/jue/jia), weapons, tools, jades, proto-porcelain - Examples: Zhengzhou Baijiazhuang M3, Erqilu M1/M2, Huangzhou Xiayaozui Class III: Lower Nobles - Tomb size: slightly larger than body - Features: sometimes waist pit, rarely coffin - Grave goods: mainly ceramics with single bronzes or jades - Examples: Zhengzhou Erqilu M4, Minggonglu M146 Class IV: Commoners - Tomb size: similar to Class III - Features: rarely waist pits or coffins - Grave goods: only ceramics, stone/bone tools - Example: Xiaxian Dongxiafeng M519 (contained li, pen, guan, dou) Class V: The Poorest - Tomb size: body-length - Features: occasional simple coffin - Grave goods: none The most dramatic status drop occurred between Classes III and IV, marked by the disappearance of bronzes. This hierarchy suggests: - Classes I-III: nobility (high/middle/low) - Classes IV-V: commoners (with/without possessions)

The Material Culture of Middle Shang Burials

The artifacts found in these tombs reveal a sophisticated material culture:

Bronzes:
– Ritual vessels: gu, jue, jia, ding, zun, bu
– Weapons: ge dagger-axes, arrowheads
– Tools: axes, chisels, knives
– Decorative techniques: taotie motifs emerging

Ceramics:
– Gray pottery dominates
– Ritual forms: li, jia, gu, jue
– Storage: gui, pen, yu
– Special types: stamped hard pottery, proto-porcelain

Jades:
– Ritual forms: ge blades, bi discs
– Personal adornment: huang pendants, handle-shaped ornaments
– Status markers: possibly used by lower elites when bronzes were unaffordable

Other Materials:
– Lacquer: possibly used for vessels (now decayed)
– Ivory: combs, decorative items
– Bone: hairpins, arrowheads, spoons

Regional Variations in Burial Practices

While common features existed, regional differences emerged:

Central Plains (Zhengzhou, Anyang):
– Most elaborate bronze sets
– Early appearance of ceramic ritual vessels
– Clear status hierarchy

Panlongcheng (Hubei):
– Unique large tombs on island location
– Combination of Central Plains and local styles
– Significant proto-porcelain finds

Shanxi (Dongxiafeng):
– Simpler assemblages
– More practical goods (tools, storage vessels)
– Fewer status markers

These variations suggest both cultural integration and local autonomy during the Middle Shang period.

The Living Society Behind the Tombs

These burial practices reflect a highly stratified society:

Elite Class:
– Rulers and high officials (Class I)
– Local administrators (Class II)
– Minor officials/wealthy landowners (Class III)

Commoners:
– Artisans/farmers with some possessions (Class IV)
– Landless poor/servants (Class V)

The careful gradations in tomb size, construction, and offerings suggest a complex bureaucracy where status was precisely calibrated and ritually expressed.

Continuity and Change: From Early to Late Shang

Middle Shang practices formed a crucial bridge:

From Early Shang:
– Maintained basic tomb structure
– Continued use of wooden coffins
– Preserved some vessel types (jia)

Innovations:
– Standardized gu-jue sets
– Increased waist pits
– New vessel types (bu)
– More elaborate bronze combinations

To Late Shang:
– Established core ritual practices
– Set patterns for status display
– Created template for Yinxu burial customs

Modern Archaeological Significance

These Middle Shang tombs provide:

– Crucial evidence between Early Shang and Yinxu periods
– Insights into regional development of Chinese civilization
– Understanding of ritual and social evolution
– Important art historical data (bronze styles, decorative motifs)

The increasing systematization of burial practices during this period reflects the consolidation of Shang state power and ritual orthodoxy that would characterize the Chinese Bronze Age.

Conclusion: Middle Shang as Cultural Crucible

The burial practices of the Middle Shang reveal a society in transition – maintaining traditions while innovating, unifying culturally while allowing regional variation. Through these silent tombs, we hear echoes of a civilization defining its rituals, hierarchies, and artistic vocabulary, laying foundations for the spectacular Late Shang culture that would follow. The careful gradations of tomb size and contents speak to a society deeply concerned with precise social positioning, while the evolving ritual vessel combinations suggest dynamic religious developments. As archaeology continues to uncover more Middle Shang sites, our understanding of this pivotal period in Chinese civilization will undoubtedly grow richer.