The Historical Context of Eastern Zhou Burial Practices

The Eastern Zhou period (770-256 BCE) represents a transformative era in Chinese history, marked by political fragmentation and cultural flourishing. The Central Plains region, encompassing modern Henan and Shanxi provinces, served as the heartland of Zhou civilization, housing both the royal domain and powerful vassal states like Jin, Wei, and Zheng. This geographical concentration of political power created a distinct cultural sphere that left an indelible mark on Chinese funerary practices.

Archaeological investigations have revealed approximately 2,600 Eastern Zhou tombs across this region, with significant concentrations around Luoyang in Henan and Houma, Zhangzi, and Changzhi in Shanxi. These burial sites provide invaluable insights into the social stratification, ritual practices, and material culture of this pivotal historical period.

Classification and Distribution of Central Plains Tombs

Scholars have developed a systematic classification of Eastern Zhou tombs based on architectural features, particularly tomb chamber size and passageway configuration:

1. Double-passage “zhong” character-shaped grand tombs
2. Single-passage “jia” character-shaped large tombs and vertical pit tombs exceeding 10 square meters
3. Medium-sized vertical pit tombs between 4-10 square meters
4. Small vertical pit tombs under 4 square meters

This typology reflects the strict hierarchical social order of Eastern Zhou society, where burial practices served as visible markers of status and power.

Notable Eastern Zhou Burial Sites

### The Luoyang Zhongzhou Road Cemetery

This extensive burial ground contained 260 Eastern Zhou tombs, with only four featuring chamber-style construction while the remainder followed the vertical pit tradition. The tombs ranged dramatically in size from 4.7×3.7 meters to modest 1.14×0.52 meter chambers.

Notable findings include:
– 161 tombs containing pottery vessels (700+ items)
– 9 tombs with bronze ritual vessels (60+ items)
– Clear chronological sequence spanning early Spring and Autumn to late Warring States periods

The cemetery exhibited two primary burial postures: flexed (74% of Spring and Autumn period burials) and extended. Most burials featured single coffin and outer chamber combinations, with rare examples of double coffins or no wooden burial containers.

### The Houma Shangma Cemetery

Excavated between 1963-1987, this massive site revealed:
– 1,373 tombs
– 3 chariot pits
– 3 horse pits
– 1 cattle pit
– Over 7,000 artifacts

Only 19 tombs contained bronze ritual vessels, while the majority held daily-use pottery or no grave goods. The cemetery’s chronological span covers late Western Zhou through the Spring and Autumn to Warring States transition.

### The Taiyuan Jinsheng Village Tomb (M251)

This magnificent late Spring and Autumn period tomb belonged to a high-ranking Jin state official, possibly a minister. Key features include:
– Rectangular vertical pit with stone and charcoal fill
– One outer chamber and three nested coffins
– 3,421 burial objects including 1,402 bronze items
– 99 bronze ritual vessels
– 7-ding set (ritual food vessels)
– Accompanying chariot pit with 44 horses and 15 vehicles
– Four human sacrifices in individual coffins

Burial Customs and Social Hierarchy

### Orientation and Body Position

Tomb orientation and burial posture reveal regional variations and chronological developments:

– Henan area tombs predominantly faced north
– Shanxi tombs showed more diversity, initially favoring east and north orientations before standardizing to north-facing
– Extended burial remained dominant (75% in Shangma cemetery), though flexed burial gained prevalence in certain areas like Luoyang

### Coffin-Chamber System

The complexity of burial containers directly correlated with social status:

– High-ranking tombs featured multiple coffins within elaborate outer chambers
– Middle-status burials typically had single coffin-chamber combinations
– Lower-status graves often contained simple single coffins or no wooden containers

### Ritual Vessel Systems

The Eastern Zhou witnessed the codification and eventual decline of strict ritual vessel systems:

Bronze Vessels:
– Developed sophisticated hierarchical systems based on ding tripods
– Early Spring and Autumn period established clear rank distinctions (9 for lords, 7 for ministers, 5 for high officials, 3 for lower nobility)
– System became increasingly fluid during Warring States period

Pottery Vessels:
– Showed clear chronological evolution in combinations
– Early Spring and Autumn: li tripod, basin, jar combinations
– Late Spring and Autumn: ding, dou stemmed cup, jar/hu vase combinations
– Warring States: ding, box, hu vase combinations predominated

Cultural Significance and Legacy

The Central Plains Eastern Zhou tombs provide unparalleled insights into:

1. Social Organization: Strict hierarchy reflected in burial treatment
2. Ritual Practices: Evolving ceremonial systems and ancestor worship
3. Technological Development: Advancements in bronze casting and pottery production
4. Artistic Achievement: Exquisite craftsmanship in ritual objects
5. Regional Interactions: Cultural exchanges between states

These burial sites demonstrate how funerary practices served as microcosms of Eastern Zhou society, preserving valuable information about social structure, religious beliefs, and material culture that would influence subsequent Chinese civilization. The transition from bronze to pottery ritual vessels particularly illustrates the changing nature of elite display and the gradual breakdown of traditional Zhou ritual systems during this transformative period.

The archaeological study of these tombs continues to reshape our understanding of early Chinese civilization, revealing the complex interplay between ritual, politics, and social organization that characterized one of the most dynamic periods in Chinese history.