The Dawn of Western Zhou Archaeology

The Feng-Hao site stands as a cornerstone in Western Zhou archaeology, representing one of the earliest and most extensively studied capital cities from China’s Bronze Age. Located near modern-day Xi’an in Shaanxi province, this dual capital complex served as the political and cultural heart of the Western Zhou dynasty (1046-771 BCE). Archaeological investigations at Feng-Hao began in earnest during the 1950s, with large-scale excavations between 1955-1957 establishing fundamental chronological frameworks that continue to shape our understanding of early Chinese civilization.

Initial excavations revealed stratified settlement layers that archaeologists divided into early and late phases based on pottery typology and stratigraphic relationships. The early phase (pre-Kang period, potentially dating to King Wen’s establishment of Feng) yielded distinctive ceramic forms including straight-necked li tripods with bag-shaped legs, cord-marked gui food containers with ring feet, and square-eared jars with folded shoulders. These artifacts provide crucial evidence for reconstructing daily life during the dynasty’s formative years.

Ceramic Chronicles: Pottery as Historical Text

The evolution of ceramic styles at Feng-Hao offers a remarkably detailed timeline of Western Zhou material culture. Early residential areas (pre-Kang period) featured:
– Straight-necked li tripods with bag-shaped legs
– Cord-marked gui vessels with ring feet
– Square-eared jars with angular shoulders
– Yan steamers and ding tripods

By contrast, late Western Zhou contexts (post-Mu period) contained:
– Imitation bronze li tripods with joined crotches
– Small-mouthed jars with string and comb patterns
– Wide-mouthed yu basins with folded profiles
– Delicate stemmed dou vessels with ridged columns

Mortuary evidence similarly reflects this chronological progression. Early tombs (Cheng-Kang period) typically contained li-gui-guan (tripod, food container, jar) assemblages, while middle period burials (Mu period) transitioned to li-yu-guan-dou (tripod, basin, jar, stemmed vessel) combinations. This ceramic sequence became the foundation for Western Zhou periodization, later expanded to six phases after the 1967 discovery of high-collared li tripods in pre-dynastic contexts.

Bridging the Pre-Zhou to Zhou Transition

A pivotal 1997 discovery at Mawangcun in western Feng finally connected the archaeological record to historical accounts of the Zhou conquest. Excavators uncovered stratified layers where early Western Zhou deposits directly overlay pre-dynastic “proto-Zhou” remains (H18 ash pit), characterized by high-collared li tripods – signature artifacts of the pre-conquest Zhou culture. This stratigraphic sequence provided tangible evidence for the Zhou’s rise to power and enabled archaeologists to distinguish pre-dynastic from early dynastic material culture.

Subsequent work at Haojing (eastern Feng) further refined the cultural sequence by identifying three settlement phases:
– Early: Dominated by zun vessels and li tripods with pinched crotches
– Middle: Featuring pan basins and three-legged wares with tile patterns
– Late: Marked by zeng steamers and yu basin popularity

These discoveries allowed researchers to correlate the four-phase settlement sequence with the six-phase mortuary chronology, creating a comprehensive framework for Western Zhou cultural development.

Architectural Grandeur of the Western Zhou

The Feng-Hao site reveals impressive urban planning and monumental architecture. Between 1977-1984, archaeologists uncovered fourteen rammed-earth foundations between Keshengzhuang and Mawangcun villages. The largest (Structure 4) measured 61.5×35.5 meters with 4-meter-thick foundations, suggesting a palatial complex dating to mid-Western Zhou. Nearby, Structure 3 preserved sections of ceramic water pipes, indicating advanced drainage systems.

At Haojing’s Huolouzi locality, Structure 5 featured an I-shaped plan (59×23 meters) with central halls flanked by wings, possibly representing a double-eaved ceremonial building. These structures demonstrate sophisticated construction techniques using layered, rammed earth (hangtu) and timber framing that would influence later Chinese architecture.

Zhouyuan, the dynasty’s ritual center, yielded even better-preserved complexes. The Fengchu Group A building (45.2×32.5 meters) displayed a symmetrical, courtyard-style layout with:
– Central axis featuring gate, front hall, and rear chambers
– East and west wing corridors
– Ceremonial courtyard (ting)
– Decorated plaster floors
– Tile roofing fragments

Nearby at Zhaochen, Building F3 (24×15 meters) and F8 (22.5×10.4 meters) exhibited advanced column-and-beam construction with:
– Regularly spaced stone pillar bases
– Central halls flanked by side chambers
– Extensive tile usage (both flat and cylindrical)
– Stone-paved drainage systems

Craft Production in the Zhou Capital

Feng-Hao hosted specialized industrial zones that supported the royal court. The Luoyang Beiyao bronze foundry (200,000 m²) operated as a major early Western Zhou workshop, yielding:
– Thousands of ceramic molds for ritual vessels
– Furnace fragments indicating 1m-diameter crucibles
– Bellows ports for forced-air smelting
– Workshop structures with multiple occupation layers

Bone workshops at Yuntang (60,000 m²) processed primarily bovine materials (80% of 10,000 kg remains), manufacturing:
– Hairpins (ji) through standardized production
– Arrowheads and needles
– Luxury items with turquoise inlays

Ceramic kilns clustered in industrial districts like Zhangjiapo and Baijiazhuang, producing:
– Domestic wares (yu basins, guan jars)
– Architectural materials (roof tiles, water pipes)
– Imitation bronze vessels

The Legacy of Feng-Hao Archaeology

As the type-site for Western Zhou culture, Feng-Hao’s chronological framework has become the benchmark for Bronze Age archaeology across China. Key contributions include:
– Establishing ceramic typologies for dating Western Zhou sites
– Demonstrating cultural continuity from pre-dynastic to dynastic periods
– Revealing urban planning principles of early Chinese capitals
– Documenting the development of Chinese architectural traditions
– Providing context for interpreting bronze vessel hoards

The 1990s Xia-Shang-Zhou Chronology Project incorporated Feng-Hao stratigraphy with radiocarbon dating to propose 1050-1020 BCE for the Zhou conquest, while linking archaeological phases to historical reigns through bronze inscriptions. Though regional variations exist (noted at Zhouyuan, Liulihe, and Tianma-Qucun), the Feng-Hao sequence remains fundamental for understanding this pivotal era when many distinctively Chinese cultural traditions took form.

Ongoing research continues to refine our knowledge of Western Zhou urbanism, technology, and social organization through this remarkable archaeological window into China’s classical antiquity. The systematic investigation of Feng-Hao exemplifies how material culture studies can illuminate historical processes, transforming our understanding of state formation and cultural development during one of East Asia’s most formative periods.