The year 1873 marked a significant period in East Asian history, characterized by Japan’s determined modernization efforts and Qing China’s hesitant grappling with Western diplomatic norms. While Japan’s Iwakura Mission returned from an extensive tour of Europe and America with a resolve to transform its political and societal structures, the Qing dynasty undertook a symbolic but profound change in its foreign relations protocol by abandoning the centuries-old practice of demanding foreign envoys to perform the kowtow before the emperor. This article explores these pivotal developments in 1873, the historical context behind them, and their broader implications for Japan, China, and international diplomacy in East Asia.

The Iwakura Mission: Japan’s Eye-Opening Journey to the West

In 1871, Japan dispatched the Iwakura Mission, a high-level diplomatic and exploratory delegation led by statesman Iwakura Tomomi, to the United States and European countries. This mission aimed to study Western political institutions, industrial technologies, education systems, and military capabilities. After nearly two years abroad, the delegation returned to Japan in 1873 profoundly influenced by what they had seen.

The members of the Iwakura Mission were dazzled by the rapid industrialization and political modernization of the West. Unlike the Tokugawa shogunate’s earlier isolationist policies, the Meiji government recognized that Japan’s survival and revitalization required more than importing new technology. They understood the necessity of overhauling Japan’s governmental institutions, legal codes, and even social attitudes to align with the global community.

This realization set the stage for sweeping reforms: the abolition of the feudal han domains, the establishment of a centralized bureaucratic state, the drafting of a constitution, compulsory education, and the promotion of industrial and military modernization. The Iwakura Mission’s findings underscored the need for Japan not only to catch up but to compete as an equal on the world stage.

Qing China’s Diplomatic Dilemma: The Kowtow Controversy

While Japan embraced change, Qing China faced a diplomatic impasse rooted in centuries-old traditions and the Confucian worldview of hierarchical international relations. One of the most contentious issues was the protocol surrounding foreign envoys’ audience with the emperor.

Since the Qianlong Emperor’s reign in the late 18th century, foreign diplomats were expected to perform the kowtow—a series of ritual prostrations symbolizing submission to the Chinese emperor’s suzerainty. This practice was deeply ingrained in the tributary system through which China perceived its place as the “Middle Kingdom” surrounded by lesser states.

However, Western nations, proud of their sovereignty, refused to kneel or perform the kowtow before the Qing emperor. This refusal repeatedly caused diplomatic friction, beginning notably with the British Macartney Mission of 1793, which famously declined to kowtow, insisting on a more equal footing in diplomatic relations.

The 1873 Abandonment of the Kowtow: A Symbolic Change

By 1873, the Qing court made a landmark change: it officially abandoned the requirement that foreign envoys perform the kowtow during audiences with the Tongzhi Emperor, allowing them instead to greet the emperor with a bow. Though seemingly minor, this adjustment marked a significant shift in Qing diplomacy, acknowledging a new era of international relations defined by equality rather than tributary hierarchy.

This change was part of a broader Qing effort to modernize and avoid further humiliation by foreign powers after a series of military defeats and unequal treaties throughout the 19th century. The move to allow a bow instead of the kowtow was a practical concession aimed at easing relations and facilitating diplomatic exchanges.

The Unprecedented Diplomatic Incident During the Tongzhi Emperor’s Wedding

Despite this shift, tensions between the Qing court and foreign diplomats remained high, particularly during the Tongzhi Emperor’s wedding in October 1872, just months before the formal abandonment of the kowtow.

On October 15, 1872, the imperial wedding was to be a grand affair with foreign envoys invited to attend. However, rather than receiving formal invitations, the envoys were visited by Qing officials who requested that they and their nationals stay indoors on the day of the ceremony and refrain from public processions in the capital. This request was perceived by foreign diplomats as an unprecedented and rude breach of protocol.

The envoys, including representatives from France, Britain, the United States, and Russia, reacted with anger and indignation. The French envoy reported that his colleagues were more outraged than he was, and the British and American representatives openly scolded the Qing officials who delivered the message, though they complied reluctantly.

This incident exposed the Qing court’s deep insecurities: they feared that foreign envoys who refused to kowtow might disrespect the emperor in public ceremonies. The court’s attempt to control the foreign presence during the wedding was an effort to preserve imperial dignity but instead resulted in diplomatic embarrassment.

The Lingering Legacy of the Kowtow Controversy

The kowtow controversy was emblematic of the broader clash between traditional Chinese worldviews and the emerging international system based on sovereign equality. Throughout the 19th century, China’s insistence on tributary rituals increasingly alienated Western powers and hampered diplomatic relations.

The Qing court’s eventual concession to allow bows rather than kowtows was a pragmatic adaptation but also a symbolic acknowledgment of China’s changing status in the world order. It represented a reluctant but necessary recognition that China could no longer demand ritual submission from foreign states.

This transformation also reflected the pressure China faced after defeats in the Opium Wars and the resulting “unequal treaties” that eroded its sovereignty. The kowtow issue was not merely about ceremony; it was intertwined with questions of national dignity, sovereignty, and the place of China in the modern world.

The Role of Diplomatic and Interpretation in Shaping Perceptions

An intriguing facet of China’s diplomatic challenges was the role of and document editing. For example, during the Qianlong Emperor’s reign, when the British Macartney Mission sent correspondence, Chinese officials altered the s of the letters to fit the tributary narrative.

A letter from Francis Baring, chairman of the British East India Company, was meant to express friendship and a desire for commercial relations between Britain and China on equal terms. However, Chinese translators modified and omitted key phrases, turning the letter into a submissive petition from a lesser power to the Chinese emperor.

This practice of rewriting foreign diplomatic documents to conform to Chinese hierarchical expectations demonstrated the Qing court’s rigid worldview and contributed to misunderstandings and mistrust. The altered s distorted the intentions of foreign powers and complicated negotiations.

Japan’s Diverging Path: Embracing Modernity and International Equality

In stark contrast to Qing China’s cautious and sometimes defensive diplomacy, Japan’s response to Western imperialism in the late 19th century was proactive and transformative.

The Iwakura Mission’s reports galvanized Japan’s leaders to overhaul their political system and institutions. Japan moved quickly to abolish feudal domains, create a constitutional monarchy, modernize its military, and reform its educational system. These efforts culminated in the promulgation of the Meiji Constitution in 1889 and the rapid industrialization of the country.

Japan also sought to renegotiate its unequal treaties with Western powers and assert itself as a sovereign nation in international affairs. The country’s willingness to adopt Western diplomatic protocols, including eschewing ritual submission, positioned it as a modern state capable of standing alongside Western powers.

Implications for East Asia and Global Diplomacy

The diplomatic developments of 1873 were pivotal for East Asia’s interaction with the wider world. Japan’s embrace of modernization and equal diplomatic status set it apart from China, which struggled to reconcile its traditional worldview with the realities of Western imperialism.

These differing approaches would have profound consequences. Japan’s modernization enabled it to defeat China in the First Sino-Japanese War , assert control over Korea and Taiwan, and emerge as a major imperial power. Meanwhile, China’s failure to reform fully contributed to internal instability, foreign domination, and eventual revolution.

On a broader scale, the kowtow controversy and the shift to diplomatic equality reflected the global transition from a hierarchical, tribute-based international order to one based on state sovereignty and legal equality. This transition shaped modern international relations and continues to influence diplomatic protocol today.

Conclusion: 1873 as a Crossroads in East Asian Diplomacy

The year 1873 stands as a watershed moment in East Asian history. Japan’s return from the West with a vision for national renewal contrasted sharply with Qing China’s hesitant and conflicted response to foreign powers.

The abandonment of the kowtow by the Qing court was a significant, symbolic shift that acknowledged the changing nature of international diplomacy. Yet the diplomatic tensions surrounding the Tongzhi Emperor’s wedding revealed the deep challenges China faced in adapting to a new international order.

Meanwhile, Japan’s Iwakura Mission exemplified the possibilities of proactive modernization and engagement with global norms. Together, these events encapsulate the struggles and transformations that defined East Asia’s tumultuous encounter with the modern world in the late 19th century. They set the stage for the dramatic political and social upheavals that would shape the region’s future for decades to come.