The turn of the 20th century was a tumultuous period for China’s Qing Dynasty, marked by foreign invasions, internal rebellions, and intense political upheaval. Among the defining moments was the Boxer Rebellion of 1900—also known as the “Gengzi Incident”—which galvanized the Qing court to initiate sweeping reforms known as the Late Qing New Policies. This article explores the historical context of this crisis, the key events that unfolded, the cultural and political ramifications, and the lasting impact of these reforms on China’s modernization efforts.

Historical Background: A Dynasty in Decline

By the late 19th century, the Qing Dynasty, which had ruled China since 1644, was facing unprecedented challenges. Internally, the empire was plagued by corruption, inefficiency, and growing discontent among its populace. Externally, Western imperial powers and Japan exerted increasing pressure, carving spheres of influence and forcing unequal treaties on China. Two major upheavals symbolized this era: the 1860 “Gengshen Incident” and the 1900 Boxer Rebellion.

The 1860 Gengshen Incident directly propelled the Self-Strengthening Movement, an early wave of reforms aimed at modernizing China’s military and industry by selectively adopting Western technology while preserving Confucian values. Key figures like Prince Gong and Empress Dowager Cixi played roles in this era, but neither was at the forefront of decision-making that led to the crisis. The 1900 Boxer Rebellion, by contrast, was tightly linked to decisions made by Cixi herself, who was the dominant political force and the architect of the hardline policies that triggered the conflict.

The Boxer Rebellion: Causes and Consequences

The Boxer Rebellion was an anti-foreign, anti-Christian uprising led by the “Righteous and Harmonious Fists” , a secret society that blamed foreign influence for China’s woes. Fueled by nationalist fervor, economic distress, and resentment against missionaries and foreign merchants, the Boxers gained tacit support from parts of the Qing court, particularly Empress Dowager Cixi.

In 1900, the Boxers laid siege to foreign legations in Beijing, provoking a military response from an eight-nation alliance comprising Britain, France, Germany, Russia, the United States, Japan, Italy, and Austria-Hungary. The allied forces captured Beijing in August 1900, leading to severe consequences for the Qing government.

The rebellion’s failure exposed the Qing’s military weakness and political dysfunction. Empress Dowager Cixi fled Beijing in what was called the “Western Hunt,” a hurried retreat to avoid capture. This crisis forced the Qing court to confront the need for far-reaching reforms to salvage the dynasty.

The Late Qing New Policies: Reform Under Duress

Unlike the earlier Self-Strengthening Movement, which was not initiated under direct personal responsibility for the crisis, the Late Qing New Policies were launched by Empress Dowager Cixi herself amidst the humiliation of foreign occupation. This situation demanded self-reflection and a radical transformation of governance, military, education, and legal structures.

The reforms sought to modernize the Qing Empire comprehensively: they aimed to strengthen the military, reform the civil service, modernize the educational system by incorporating Western knowledge, and overhaul the legal codes. Yet, these reforms were implemented under immense pressure from foreign powers and internal factions pushing for change.

Debates Over Qing Governance After the Rebellion

One of the most pressing questions after the Boxer Rebellion was the future of the Qing court itself. How should the dynasty be handled in the wake of such a catastrophic defeat and international humiliation?

Prominent reformers like Ding Fuliang, the head instructor at the prestigious Imperial University, advocated for an approach known as “using China to govern China.” Between August and November 1900, Ding proposed that foreign powers cooperate with southern Chinese governors who supported the “Southeast Mutual Protection” stance. This coalition sought to depose Empress Dowager Cixi, restore the authority of the Guangxu Emperor—who had been sidelined since the 1898 Hundred Days’ Reform—and limit Qing military power, with foreigners overseeing the central administration.

These ideas reflected a widespread belief in both China and abroad that the Qing government was divided into two opposing camps: the conservative, anti-foreign faction led by Cixi, and the progressive, reformist Guangxu Emperor. Ding Fuliang urged foreign powers to distinguish between these forces and suggested concrete measures published in the Beijing-Tianjin Times, including:

– Exiling Empress Dowager Cixi and reinstating Guangxu’s legitimate rule.

– Revoking all decrees issued by Cixi following the 1898 coup.

– Restoring and implementing Guangxu’s reform plans with foreign approval.

– Dividing China’s provinces into spheres of influence monitored by foreign representatives to ensure the cooperation of local governors.

International Proposals and the Question of Sovereignty

Ding Fuliang’s proposals were radical, essentially calling for the overthrow of Cixi and a government reorganization under foreign supervision. They resonated with certain reform-minded circles but were too extreme for most foreign powers, who preferred a more conservative approach that maintained Chinese sovereignty—at least nominally—while ensuring their interests were protected.

American missionary Timothy Richard, a leading figure in the Guangxuehui , drafted his own recommendations for international governments. He argued that no central Chinese government at the time was trustworthy or capable of fulfilling treaty obligations, and he suggested the formation of a joint Sino-foreign cabinet to manage the country’s affairs during a transitional period.

Richard envisioned:

– A cabinet composed equally of Chinese and foreign members.

– Participation from each major power with a military presence in China.

– Governors and provincial officials nominated based on foreign trust.

– The cabinet’s primary role to protect lives, property, and China’s territorial integrity impartially.

– The cabinet operating independently of any single foreign power.

– The creation of an international supreme court to adjudicate disputes related to governance.

– Provincial governors maintaining order locally without deploying troops to Beijing during the transition.

This proposal reflected a Western view that China needed direct intervention in governance to achieve stability and modernization.

The Limits of Foreign Ambitions and Qing Resistance

Despite these ambitious schemes, the foreign powers’ main goal was to reach a peace agreement with a reformed Qing government that could guarantee their commercial and strategic interests. They were unwilling to dismantle the dynasty entirely or assume direct control over China, partly due to logistical challenges and the sheer scale of governing a vast population.

Lord Alfred Gaselee, commander of the allied forces, famously remarked that no European or Japanese power had the capacity to govern a quarter of the world’s population, hinting at the impracticality of colonial administration over China.

Therefore, the question of Empress Dowager Cixi’s fate became central. Western media had grown increasingly critical of Cixi, blaming her for instigating the Boxer Rebellion and the subsequent war. British publications in Shanghai and German newspapers called for her removal or retirement, suggesting her political downfall was necessary for peace and reform.

The Legacy of the 1900 Crisis and Late Qing Reforms

The aftermath of the Boxer Rebellion and the international intervention forced the Qing court to embark on the Late Qing New Policies, a series of reforms that would shape the last decades of imperial China. These reforms laid the groundwork for modernization efforts in education, military, law, and administration, attempting to transform China into a constitutional monarchy and a modern nation-state.

However, the reforms came too late and faced significant resistance from conservative factions. The dynasty’s weakened state, the rise of nationalist movements, and growing revolutionary sentiment eventually culminated in the 1911 Xinhai Revolution, which ended over two millennia of imperial rule.

Still, the Boxer Rebellion and the subsequent reforms represent a crucial transitional moment in Chinese history—a moment when the Qing regime was forced to confront the realities of a changing world and the need for self-reflection and adaptation.

Conclusion: Reflection and Courage in Crisis

The 1900 Boxer Rebellion and the Qing court’s response illustrate the complexities of reform amid crisis. Unlike the earlier Self-Strengthening Movement, which was initiated without direct accountability for the triggering events, the Late Qing New Policies were born out of pressure, humiliation, and the urgent need to salvage a faltering dynasty.

Empress Dowager Cixi, despite her pivotal role in precipitating the crisis, lacked the vision and courage to fully embrace the reforms necessary for China’s survival. The proposals from reformers like Ding Fuliang and international figures like Timothy Richard highlight the diverse ideas circulating at the time about how to rebuild China’s governance.

Ultimately, the 1900 crisis underscores the profound challenges faced by traditional regimes confronting modernity, imperialism, and internal dissent. It remains a poignant example of how history’s turning points demand insight, courage, and sometimes painful self-renewal.