The early years of the Republic of China were marked by turmoil and fragmentation, as competing factions vied for control in the wake of the Qing dynasty’s fall. Among the most significant conflicts of this era was the Constitutional Protection War, a revolutionary campaign launched by Sun Yat-sen to defend the Provisional Constitution of the Republic of China and oppose the dictatorial rule of the Beiyang warlords. This article explores the historical background, key battles, political strategies, and enduring legacy of this pivotal conflict, with a focus on the intense military engagements in Hunan province and surrounding regions.

The Historical Context: From Revolution to Warlordism

When the Qing dynasty collapsed in 1911, China entered a period of political experimentation and instability. The founding of the Republic of China promised modernization and constitutional governance, but the reality was far more fragmented. Yuan Shikai, a powerful military leader and former Qing general, became president and later attempted to restore monarchy under his own rule, sparking widespread opposition.

After Yuan’s death in 1916, China fractured further into regions controlled by rival warlords—military strongmen who commanded loyalty from their troops rather than the central government. The Beiyang Army, initially loyal to Yuan, evolved into a dominant warlord faction headquartered in the north, exercising autocratic control over much of China’s political and military apparatus.

In response, Sun Yat-sen and his supporters sought to revive the original republican ideals, emphasizing constitutionalism and national unity. Sun, then based in the southern provinces, launched the Constitutional Protection Movement to defend the Provisional Constitution and resist the Beiyang warlords’ authoritarian rule.

The Outbreak of the Constitutional Protection War

The Constitutional Protection War emerged as a direct result of these tensions. Sun Yat-sen and allied provincial military leaders declared their allegiance to the Provisional Constitution and formed a rival government in Guangzhou, opposing the Beiyang regime based in Beijing. The conflict was not a simple binary struggle but involved multiple regional forces—military cliques from Guangxi, Yunnan, Guangdong, Hunan, Hubei, and Sichuan provinces—each with their own agendas and degrees of commitment to the constitutional cause.

The war involved protracted military campaigns across southern and central China, with the most intense battles fought in Hunan province. The warlords who supported the constitutional cause—often referred to as the “Protectorate” forces—clashed repeatedly with Beiyang armies and their local allies, attempting to assert control over strategic provinces and cities.

The First Northern Army Campaign Against Hunan

### The Declaration of Autonomy in Southern Hunan

At the time, Hunan province was a crucial battleground. Under the command of local warlord Tan Yankai, Hunan’s military forces numbered over 60,000 men, including two regular divisions and several district garrison units. The provincial forces were reasonably well-organized, with the first division commanded by Zhao Hengtai and the second division by Chen Fuchu.

Tan’s departure from office in 1917 triggered a critical shift. Before leaving, he appointed Liu Jianfan as acting commander of the Lingling garrison and repositioned the first division’s second brigade under Lin Xiumei to Hengshan, preparing to coordinate with allied Guangxi forces. Both Liu and Lin were committed revolutionaries with histories of participation in the 1911 revolution, the Second Revolution against Yuan Shikai, and the earlier National Protection War—all key movements aimed at preserving republican ideals.

However, when Fu Liangzuo assumed command in September 1917, he perceived Liu and Lin as threats to his authority in southern Hunan. He promptly removed them from their posts, provoking a strong reaction. On September 18, Liu and Lin jointly proclaimed the autonomy of southern Hunan, explicitly breaking ties with the Beiyang government led by Duan Qirui and criticizing the unlawful practices and autocratic ambitions of the Beiyang regime.

This declaration was echoed by other local commanders, including Wu Jianxue, Zhou Wei, and Li Zhonglin, who also declared their allegiance to the constitutional protection cause. Sun Yat-sen personally congratulated the new leadership and dispatched Lin Zuhan —brother of Lin Xiumei—as an envoy to support the southern Hunan forces.

### The Northern Army’s Initial Offensive and Defections

Fu Liangzuo, alarmed by the southern Hunan insurrection, ordered the first division’s first brigade, commanded by Li Youwen, to advance southward to Hengshan and suppress the uprising. The brigade’s first and second regiments positioned in Xiangyin, Pingjiang, and Changsha respectively, moved against the constitutional forces.

On September 22, clashes erupted at Qilitang in Hengshan between the first regiment and Lin Xiumei’s troops. However, morale among the northern troops began to falter. On September 28, a significant portion of the third battalion of the first regiment staged an uprising in Shiwang, Hengshan, defecting to the constitutional army. This act encouraged other units to follow suit, leaving Li Youwen with only a handful of loyal soldiers retreating to Changsha.

The failure of the northern army’s initial campaign in Hunan demonstrated the fragility of Beiyang control in southern provinces and elevated the strength and morale of the constitutional protection forces.

The Battles of Hengshan and Baoqing: Consolidating Control

### The Formation of the Southern Hunan Constitutional Army Command

The defection of key military units galvanized the constitutional protection movement in Hunan. On September 27, Zhao Hengtai, commander of the first division and a native of Hunan, returned from his home and joined the constitutional cause. Liu Jianfan brought ten battalions to Hengyang on September 28, and on September 29, General Cheng Qian arrived from Guangzhou to lend his support.

By October 6, the various constitutional military leaders in Hunan convened in Hengyang and organized the Southern Hunan Constitutional Army Command, electing Cheng Qian as commander-in-chief. This consolidation marked a turning point, enabling coordinated military operations against the Beiyang forces.

### The Guangxi Army’s Intervention

Meanwhile, the Guangxi warlord faction, aligned with the constitutionalists, prepared to assist Hunan. By late September, the vanguard of General Lu Yuguang’s Guangxi army had reached Hengyang. On October 2, a military conference in Nanning, Guangxi, attended by prominent leaders including Guangdong’s governor Chen Bing and Navy Commander Cheng Biguang, formulated a plan to deploy 80 battalions from Guangdong and Guangxi provinces.

The troops were divided into five armies under various commanders, with Guangxi’s military governor Tan Haoming appointed as overall commander of the Guangdong-Guangxi Constitutional Protection Allied Army. The plan involved Guangdong forces advancing from Shaoguan into Hunan via key towns such as You County and Liling, while Guangxi forces would advance through Sanjiang and Xinning toward Baoqing.

This multi-pronged offensive aimed to expel Fu Liangzuo’s Beiyang troops from Hunan, secure the province for the constitutionalists, and reinforce the southern front.

### Key Battles and Military Maneuvers

The battles in Hengshan and Baoqing were characterized by intense engagements and shifting frontlines. The constitutional protection forces, bolstered by local support and defections from northern units, managed to hold strategic towns and resist northern advances.

The conflict showcased the complexities of early Republican warfare, where loyalty was often fluid, and military commanders balanced personal power with ideological commitments. The constitutional protection armies utilized guerrilla tactics and local knowledge, while the Beiyang forces relied on numerical superiority and formal military discipline.

These engagements drew significant attention across China, symbolizing the broader struggle between republican constitutionalism and warlord autocracy.

Other Battlefronts: Sichuan, Guangdong, Hubei, and Fujian

While Hunan was the primary theater of conflict, the Constitutional Protection War extended to several other provinces, each with its own dynamics.

– Sichuan: Warlords in Sichuan, a vast and strategically important province, declared support for the constitutional cause. However, internal factionalism and logistical challenges limited their effectiveness. Battles here were marked by localized skirmishes and shifting alliances.

– Guangdong: As the base of Sun Yat-sen’s rival government, Guangdong was a critical stronghold. The province’s forces actively engaged Beiyang troops and coordinated with Guangxi for joint operations.

– Hubei: The province witnessed fierce fighting, with various military leaders aligning with either the constitutionalists or the Beiyang regime. Control of Wuhan, a key city, oscillated during the conflict.

– Fujian: Although more peripheral, Fujian’s coastal position made it significant for supply and naval operations. The province’s military units participated in support of the constitutional movement.

These diverse fronts reflected the fragmented nature of China’s political landscape at the time, where regional loyalties and personal ambitions shaped the course of the war.

The Cultural and Political Impact of the Constitutional Protection War

The Constitutional Protection War was more than a military contest; it was a battle of ideas and legitimacy. By invoking the Provisional Constitution and opposing warlord despotism, Sun Yat-sen and his allies sought to reassert the principles of republicanism and rule of law.

The war galvanized revolutionary fervor in southern China, inspiring intellectual debates, political activism, and cultural expressions emphasizing national unity and constitutional governance. It also exposed the limitations of military power when divorced from popular support and legal legitimacy.

Furthermore, the conflict illustrated the challenges of state-building in a fragmented society. The warlord era revealed the difficulty of imposing centralized authority and the importance of alliances among regional powers.

The Legacy of the Constitutional Protection War

Though the Constitutional Protection War did not immediately unify China or end warlordism, it laid important groundwork for future political developments.

– Sun Yat-sen’s Leadership: The war reinforced Sun’s position as the symbolic leader of Chinese republicanism and constitutionalism, enabling him to continue rallying support for national reunification.

– Military Realignments: The conflict shifted military allegiances and weakened the Beiyang warlords’ grip on southern provinces, creating space for new configurations of power.

– Constitutionalism as National Goal: The emphasis on constitutional protection influenced subsequent political movements and debates, shaping the trajectory of Republican China.

– Prelude to Northern Expedition: The fragmentation and instability highlighted by the war eventually contributed to the Nationalist Party’s Northern Expedition in 1926–1928, aimed at reunifying China under a central government.

In sum, the Constitutional Protection War was a critical episode in the tumultuous early republican period, symbolizing the struggle between autocracy and constitutionalism, regionalism and national unity, military power and democratic ideals. Its complex military campaigns, political maneuvers, and ideological battles continue to resonate in the study of China’s modern history.

Conclusion

The Constitutional Protection War encapsulates the challenges of early 20th-century China—a nation striving to transform itself amid internal divisions and external pressures. Sun Yat-sen’s vision of constitutional governance confronted entrenched warlord autocracy in a conflict that shaped the course of Chinese politics for years to come.

The battles in Hunan, the collaboration among southern provinces, and the unwavering commitment to constitutional ideals demonstrate the enduring human quest for legitimacy, justice, and national identity. Though the war did not immediately resolve China’s fragmentation, it was a vital chapter in the ongoing story of China’s path to modernization and sovereignty.