Introduction: Unearthing Voices from the Past

Historical narratives often focus on emperors, generals, and grand political movements, leaving the daily lives of ordinary people and women in the shadows. Yet, artifacts from the Eastern Han dynasty —offer a fascinating glimpse into the social and cultural fabric of the time, intertwining the stories of the Empress Dowager Ma and a common woman named Zhang Xuning.

The Historical Context: Stability in the Jianchu Era

The year 79 AD, the fourth year of the Jianchu reign period under Emperor Zhang of Han , was marked by relative peace and prosperity. The Eastern Han dynasty had emerged from the chaos of the Wang Mang interregnum and civil wars that followed the fall of the Western Han. By this time, the empire had regained stability, with a centralized bureaucracy and a flourishing economy.

Emperor Zhang, the grandson of Liu Xiu , was known for his benevolence and diligence. At 23 years old, he ruled a state that was politically stable and economically sound, with no major external conflicts. This stability allowed the emperor to focus on governance and familial duties, as reflected in his personal attention to his mother, the Empress Dowager Ma.

While the imperial court thrived in the capital Luoyang, daily life in the provinces, including areas along the Yangtze River basin, reflected a complex tapestry of local customs, agricultural livelihoods, and popular religious practices. The discovery of the “Xuning Slips” in this region provides important evidence of the lived experiences of commoners and their spiritual world.

The Xuning Slips: A Rare Discovery of Eastern Han Daily Life

The Xuning bamboo slips, currently housed in the Art Museum of the Chinese University of Hong Kong, consist of administrative notes, prayers, and ritual invocations dated precisely to the fourth year of the Jianchu era , a term also found in nearby Chu burial texts.

These slips are particularly valuable because they document popular religious practices and personal petitions during a period when official historical records rarely detail the lives of ordinary people, especially women. The slips include prayers and rituals intended to ensure health, longevity, and prosperity, revealing the intimate ways in which religion permeated everyday life.

Parallel Lives: The Empress Dowager Ma and Zhang Xuning

In the late summer of 79 AD, two women of roughly the same age were seriously ill—Empress Dowager Ma, residing in the northern palace of Luoyang, and Zhang Xuning, a common woman living in a village somewhere in the Yangtze River basin.

Empress Dowager Ma was the widow of Emperor Ming and mother to Emperor Zhang . She lived in the Changle Palace, a residence traditionally assigned to the Empress Dowager, located in the northern sector of the imperial city. Despite her elevated status and the luxuries of court life, she was also subject to illness and vulnerability. Her son, the emperor himself, frequently visited her bedside, underscoring their close relationship—a contrast to the often distant or ceremonial role of imperial mothers in other dynasties.

Meanwhile, Zhang Xuning’s illness unfolded far from the imperial spotlight, attended by her family members within the modest confines of a rural household. Though her name is preserved only on the slips, her presence humanizes the vast social spectrum of the Eastern Han, reminding us that sickness and care were universal experiences.

The Emperor’s Devotion: A Son’s Care in the Imperial Court

Emperor Zhang’s attentive visits to Empress Dowager Ma are documented not only in historical texts but also inferred from the cultural norms of the time. In the Eastern Han, filial piety was a central Confucian virtue, and the emperor was expected to exemplify this ideal. The closeness between the emperor and his mother, who was educated in Confucian classics and skeptical of superstition, reflects a sophisticated intertwining of personal affection and state ritual.

The Changle Palace housed the Empress Dowager and was part of the northern palace complex. According to scholar Chen Suzhen’s research on palace systems, the Eastern Han divided the palace into northern and southern sections, with distinct functions. The emperor and empress generally resided in the eastern part, while the Empress Dowager occupied the western section, often in the same palace complex but with strict spatial and ceremonial boundaries.

Despite the physical proximity within the northern palace, the Empress Dowager rarely ventured beyond her quarters unless necessary. Emperor Zhang’s visits thus signified both political respect and genuine filial concern, highlighting the human dimensions behind imperial protocol.

The Wider Political and Cultural Milieu of 79 AD

While these personal dramas unfolded within the imperial and rural settings, the broader political landscape was marked by routine governance and cultural consolidation. Notable events in 79 AD included:

– The death of the Grand Commandant and Confucian scholar Mou Rong, signaling a passing of elder statesmen who had shaped the early Eastern Han.

– The establishment of the crown prince, Liu Qing, ensuring dynastic succession.

– The birth of Emperor Zhang’s youngest son, Liu Zhao, symbolizing the continuation of imperial lineage.

– Diplomatic considerations regarding the Western Regions, prompted by a letter from Ban Chao, a famed general and explorer, who urged renewed Han influence in Central Asia.

These events, while seemingly mundane, laid the groundwork for the Han dynasty’s continued stability and expansion.

Interestingly, the same summer witnessed the catastrophic eruption of Mount Vesuvius in the Roman Empire, burying Pompeii and Herculaneum. Although this natural disaster was monumental in world history, it remained unknown to the Han Chinese, who viewed the Roman territories as distant and peripheral.

Popular Religious Beliefs and Practices Reflected in the Xuning Slips

The Xuning Slips also shed light on the spiritual life of both elite and ordinary classes. The slips contain prayers directed to local deities and “water spirits,” reflecting a syncretic belief system that combined official Confucian rites with indigenous folk practices.

Empress Dowager Ma, despite her Confucian education and skepticism toward shamans and witchcraft, would have been aware of these rituals, as they permeated all levels of society. Commoners like Zhang Xuning relied heavily on such rites for healing and protection, often invoking deities to ward off illness or misfortune.

These practices reveal the coexistence of rational, state-sanctioned ideology and deeply ingrained popular religiosity during the Eastern Han, illustrating the complex cultural landscape beyond the court.

The Significance and Legacy of the Xuning Slips

The discovery and scholarly analysis of the Xuning Slips have expanded our understanding of Eastern Han society in several key ways:

1. Social Stratification and Shared Humanity: The concurrent illnesses of an empress dowager and a common woman emphasize that, regardless of status, all humans faced vulnerability and sought solace in family and faith.

2. Religious Syncretism: The slips document everyday religious practices that coexisted with official Confucianism, offering insight into the spiritual world of ordinary people.

3. Administrative and Cultural Insights: The slips provide dates and references to local officials and rituals, enriching the historical record beyond elite chronicles.

4. Material Culture: As physical artifacts, the slips demonstrate the use of writing and record-keeping in provincial contexts, highlighting the diffusion of literacy and bureaucratic control.

The Xuning Slips thus serve as a valuable bridge connecting the grand narratives of imperial history with the intimate stories of individuals, illuminating the texture of life in the Eastern Han.

Conclusion: Bridging Imperial Grandeur and Common Life

The parallel stories of Empress Dowager Ma and Zhang Xuning during the summer of 79 AD remind us that history is not solely the domain of emperors and generals but a mosaic of countless personal experiences. Through the lens of the Xuning Slips, we glimpse a world where imperial power and rural life intersected, where Confucian ideals met popular faith, and where sickness and family care transcended social divides.

These ancient bamboo slips invite us to reflect on the enduring human themes of compassion, resilience, and belief, offering a richly textured portrait of a society balancing tradition and change during one of China’s most fascinating historical periods.