Introduction: The End of an Era and the Return of the Bourbons

On April 6, 1814, Napoleon Bonaparte, the towering figure of revolutionary and imperial France, signed his abdication under duress, marking the end of an era in French history. The Senate, acting under the influence of the anti-French coalition powers, quickly moved to reshape the political landscape. They passed a new constitution declaring France a hereditary monarchy once again and summoned Louis XVIII, brother of the executed Louis XVI, to return from exile and assume the throne. The white fleur-de-lis flag of the Bourbon dynasty once more flew over Paris, symbolizing a dramatic political restoration after a quarter-century of revolutionary change.

Yet, as renowned royalist thinker Joseph de Maistre lamented, this was no simple return to the past. Louis XVIII was not merely reclaiming his ancestral throne but was, in effect, sitting on the very seat that Napoleon had occupied. The France that welcomed Louis XVIII was fundamentally transformed — politically, socially, and economically — by the Revolution and the Napoleonic era. The Bourbon Restoration would thus be a complex balancing act between old traditions and new realities.

Historical Context: Revolution, Empire, and Collapse

To understand the First Restoration, one must first appreciate the seismic upheavals France had undergone since 1789. The French Revolution had dismantled the Ancien Régime’s feudal structures, abolished the monarchy’s absolute power, declared the rights of man and citizen, and led to the rise of the First Republic. The execution of Louis XVI in 1793 marked the definitive end of the old monarchy and the beginning of radical experimentation in governance.

Napoleon’s rise to power capitalized on the chaos and ambitions unleashed by the revolution. While he crowned himself Emperor, his regime preserved many revolutionary reforms, including legal equality , secularization, and meritocracy in administration and the military. However, his imperial ambitions led to decades of warfare across Europe, culminating in a coalition that finally forced his abdication.

By 1814, France was exhausted by war and internal discord. The anti-French coalition sought to restore stability through a Bourbon monarchy that could guarantee peace and order, but this restoration was not a mere rewind to the pre-revolutionary past.

Louis XVIII’s Pragmatic Approach: The Saint-Ouen Declaration

Louis XVIII, understanding the irrevocable changes France had undergone, recognized that the revolutionary era had fundamentally altered society’s expectations and the political framework. He could not simply reinstate absolute monarchy or ignore the new social order dominated by a powerful bourgeoisie and newly empowered citizens.

On the eve of entering Paris, Louis XVIII issued the Saint-Ouen Declaration, a careful statement that acknowledged the irreversible changes brought by the revolution. He promised to respect democratic constitutional principles, civil liberties, and equality before the law. Crucially, he accepted many of the institutions and reforms established during the revolutionary and Napoleonic periods, including the sale of nationalized lands and the basic outline of the new government structure.

However, Louis XVIII also made it clear that the existing constitution was provisional. He intended to “grant” a new constitution, or Charter, that would balance tradition with the realities of post-revolutionary France.

The Charter of 1814: A Revolutionary Compromise

On June 4, 1814, Louis XVIII promulgated the Charter of 1814, a constitutional document that codified the Bourbon Restoration’s political settlement. Rather than restoring the absolute monarchy of the Ancien Régime, it established a constitutional monarchy, blending revolutionary ideals with royal authority.

The Charter contained 74 articles that acknowledged many revolutionary achievements: civil liberties such as freedom of religion and the press, equality before the law, abolition of feudal privileges, and protection of private property, notably lands sold during the revolution. It maintained the bicameral legislature, comprising a Chamber of Peers , though the king retained significant executive powers.

By backdating his reign to 1795—the year Louis XVII died in captivity—Louis XVIII sought to legitimize his authority as the continuous monarch, despite the revolutionary interlude.

The Bourgeoisie’s Disillusionment: Expectations and Reality

Initially, the Charter found some favor among the French bourgeoisie, who had benefited from the revolution’s social and economic changes and sought a constitutional government that respected their property and political rights. They hoped Louis XVIII would govern in the British parliamentary style, appointing ministers responsible to the legislature and respecting the will of the elected representatives.

However, these hopes were soon dashed. Louis XVIII ruled with a strong royal prerogative, appointing ministers who were his personal agents rather than accountable to parliament. The king’s ministers did not answer to the Chambers, and Louis XVIII did not emulate the British constitutional monarchy model.

Further aggravating the bourgeoisie was Louis XVIII’s willingness to let foreign actors influence French affairs. Figures like the Duke of Wellington, representing Britain and the coalition powers, had a say in French governance, which many French citizens and elites found humiliating and unacceptable.

The People’s Perspective: Resentment and Tolerance

For the vast majority of ordinary French citizens, the restored Bourbon monarchy was of little value or appeal. The people did not embrace Louis XVIII out of loyalty but tolerated him as a condition imposed by the victorious coalition powers to end the exhausting wars.

The white Bourbon flag, symbolizing the monarchy, was often seen as a mark of national humiliation rather than pride. The common people had endured immense social and economic upheaval during the revolution and Napoleonic wars and sought stability and fairness, not a return to aristocratic privilege.

Yet, as long as Louis XVIII and the Restoration government refrained from reinstating feudal taxes such as the tithe, and did not restore the old regime’s oppressive social privileges, the people remained resigned to accept the new order, however reluctantly.

The Ultra-Royalists: Reactionary Forces and Their Influence

Despite Louis XVIII’s initial efforts at compromise, the most reactionary royalists—known as Ultra-royalists—pushed for a complete restoration of the Ancien Régime’s social and political order. These staunch supporters of the monarchy rejected the ideas of the revolution and demanded the return of noble privileges, the authority of the Catholic Church, and the suppression of all revolutionary reforms.

Leading this faction was the Count of Artois, Louis XVIII’s younger brother, who would later become King Charles X. Under their pressure, Louis XVIII reversed many of his earlier promises.

The king dismissed more than 10,000 officers who had served under Napoleon, many of whom were loyal to the empire rather than the monarchy, often cutting their pay in half. He recruited noble youth for an elite royal guard with special privileges and restored the House of Peers, granting aristocrats high-ranking government and military positions.

The Church regained exemption from taxation and escaped governmental oversight, a stark reversal of revolutionary secularization. The monarchy commemorated the execution of Louis XVI as a national day of mourning, erected monuments honoring royalist martyrs of recent uprisings, and rehabilitated figures who had opposed Napoleon, including those executed for assassination attempts.

Some extremist clergy even openly called for the return of the tithe and other feudal dues, attempting to roll back decades of social progress.

The Political and Social Legacy of the First Restoration

The First Restoration period was a volatile time of political experimentation and ideological conflict. It revealed the deep divisions within French society between revolutionaries, moderates, royalists, and foreign powers.

Louis XVIII’s reign showed the impossibility of simply reversing the revolution. The monarchy’s survival depended on balancing respect for the revolutionary legacy with the demands of royalist supporters—a balance that was fragile and often unstable.

The Restoration also exposed France’s vulnerability to foreign influence and manipulation, as coalition powers sought to reshape the continent’s political map after the Napoleonic Wars.

Although the monarchy was restored, it was a constitutional rather than an absolute monarchy, signaling a permanent shift in French political culture. The Charter of 1814 laid the groundwork for future constitutional developments and highlighted the tensions between popular sovereignty and royal authority.

Conclusion: The Bourbon Monarchy’s Complex Return

The First Restoration of the Bourbon monarchy was not a simple return to pre-revolutionary France but a complex redefinition of monarchy in a transformed society. Louis XVIII’s pragmatic acceptance of revolutionary changes, tempered by pressure from reactionary forces, created a political order that was neither fully revolutionary nor fully traditional.

This uneasy settlement set the stage for continued political struggles throughout the 19th century, as France grappled with the legacies of revolution, empire, and monarchy. The Restoration era remains a fascinating example of how history’s tides can reshape political institutions and social contracts, forcing rulers and subjects alike to navigate new realities forged by the forces of change.