The early first century CE in China was a time marked by political upheaval, civil war, and the collapse of dynasties. Amidst this turbulent backdrop, a seemingly macabre artifact—a severed head—embarked on a symbolic journey that reflected the intense power struggles of the era. This article delves into the dramatic story of that head, its significance in the war between rival claimants to the Chinese throne, and the broader historical context that shaped these events. Through exploring this narrative, readers gain insight into the collapse of the Xin dynasty, the brief reign of the Gengshi Emperor, and the eventual rise of the Eastern Han dynasty.

Historical Context: The Fall of the Xin Dynasty and the Rise of the Gengshi Emperor

In 9 CE, Wang Mang, a powerful official and regent, usurped the throne from the Han dynasty, founding the short-lived Xin dynasty. His radical reforms and attempts to alienate the established aristocracy and landowners led to widespread unrest. By 23 CE, rebellion had engulfed the empire. Various factions vied for power, with the Han dynasty loyalists seeking to restore the old order.

Among these challengers was Liu Xuan, a descendant of the Han royal family, who was proclaimed emperor in the city of Wancheng, near modern-day Nanyang in Henan province. Known posthumously as the Gengshi Emperor, Liu Xuan symbolized a hope to reestablish Han rule amid the chaos. However, his reign would be short and fraught with difficulties.

The Severed Head’s Journey to Wancheng: A Symbol of Victory

In the ninth month of the first year of Gengshi’s reign , messengers raced from Chang’an, the former imperial capital, to Wancheng, carrying a grim token: the severed head of Wang Mang. This head, recently cut off after Wang Mang’s defeat, was enclosed in a box and delivered to Liu Xuan.

This was a momentous occasion—the first “meeting” between two emperors since the outbreak of civil war, albeit one living and the other dead. The presence of Wang Mang’s head before Liu Xuan was a potent symbol of the latter’s triumph in the bloody overthrow of the Xin dynasty.

Yet, the struggle was far from over. Although Chang’an had fallen, other key cities such as Luoyang remained loyal to Wang Mang’s regime. The head’s public display in Wancheng was intended to consolidate Liu Xuan’s authority and demoralize remaining loyalists. Just as Xiang Yu had used the head of his defeated rival to compel submission centuries earlier, Liu Xuan ordered Wang Mang’s head to be hung in the bustling market of Wancheng.

Public Spectacle and Cultural Significance of Displaying the Head

Markets in ancient Chinese cities served as central public spaces teeming with activity. Executions and the public display of criminals’ heads were common methods to assert state authority and instill fear or obedience among the populace.

The head of Wang Mang in Wancheng’s market attracted crowds who vented their hatred on it. People kicked and struck the head; some even pried open the mouth to cut out and eat the tongue—a vivid testament to the deep resentment Wang Mang had engendered during his reign. News of his death spread rapidly, quelling doubts about the Xin dynasty’s demise and encouraging scattered loyalist forces to surrender.

Indeed, the surrender of Luoyang shortly followed, a crucial victory that bolstered Liu Xuan’s fragile regime.

Shifting Capitals: From Wancheng to Luoyang

Following the capture of Luoyang, Liu Xuan decided to relocate the imperial court there, recognizing the city’s strategic and symbolic importance. He summoned his general Liu Xiu—later famed as Emperor Guangwu and founder of the Eastern Han dynasty—to oversee the restoration of Luoyang’s palace and the establishment of a functioning administration.

Liu Xiu’s efforts were swift and effective, enabling Liu Xuan and his court to move to Luoyang by October of the same year. Wang Mang’s severed head presumably accompanied this journey, continuing its role as a symbol of victory and legitimacy.

The Unstable Reign of the Gengshi Emperor and the Role of Liu Xiu

Despite these early successes, Liu Xuan’s reign was plagued by internal strife and external threats. Several generals dispatched to stabilize Chang’an failed and retreated to Luoyang, bringing with them imperial regalia left behind by Wang Mang.

Liu Xuan hesitated to return to Chang’an, wary of the multiple rebellious factions in Hebei and surrounding areas. In this political vacuum, Liu Xiu was appointed provisional Grand Marshal with imperial authority to pacify the northern provinces. Though largely an honorific title in the chaotic political landscape, Liu Xiu embraced the opportunity to build his power base.

His successful campaigns in Hebei solidified his standing. Meanwhile, Liu Xuan prepared to move to Chang’an in early 24 CE, signaling his intention to reclaim the old capital and fully restore his authority.

The Fate of Wang Mang’s Head Amidst Continuing Conflict

The exact whereabouts of Wang Mang’s head after Liu Xuan’s transfer to Chang’an remain uncertain. It may have stayed in Luoyang or traveled with Liu Xuan to Chang’an, where it would have symbolized continued claims to imperial legitimacy.

However, Liu Xuan’s regime unraveled rapidly. He faced threats not only from external rebel armies, such as the Red Eyebrow forces, but also from internal betrayals and infighting among his appointed officials and generals. Eventually, Liu Xuan was forced to abandon Chang’an and surrender to the Red Eyebrow rebels, who installed their own pretender emperor, Liu Penzi.

In this chaotic transfer of power, Wang Mang’s head may have come under Red Eyebrow control, continuing its grim function as a relic of contested imperial authority.

The Emergence of the Eastern Han and Liu Xiu’s Ascendancy

While Liu Xuan’s fortunes waned, Liu Xiu—his once-loyal general—capitalized on the chaos to establish his own rule. By mid-25 CE, Liu Xiu declared himself emperor, inaugurating the Eastern Han dynasty with the era name Jianwu.

Shortly thereafter, forces loyal to Liu Xiu reclaimed Luoyang, overcoming remaining pockets of resistance, including the city of Xianyang, which surrendered in November 25 CE. Liu Xiu officially established Luoyang as the capital, firmly anchoring his rule and marking the beginning of a more stable period in Han history.

Legacy of the Severed Head and Its Symbolism in Chinese Political Culture

The journey of Wang Mang’s severed head encapsulates a vivid aspect of ancient Chinese political culture: the use of physical symbols to assert legitimacy and power. Displaying a defeated rival’s head in public was a calculated act meant to send a clear message of victory, justice, and the restoration of order.

This practice was not unique to Wang Mang’s era. Throughout Chinese history, the treatment of enemies’ remains often carried profound political and psychological weight. The spectacle in Wancheng’s market echoes earlier instances such as Xiang Yu’s display of King Huai’s head or later episodes in Chinese history where heads became tokens of conquest and reminders of authority.

Moreover, the head’s journey—from Chang’an to Wancheng, then likely to Luoyang and possibly back to Chang’an—mirrors the shifting centers of power during this chaotic period. It stands as a metaphor for the fragile and transient nature of imperial authority amid civil war.

Conclusion: A Head That Told a Story of Dynastic Turmoil

The story of Wang Mang’s severed head is more than a grisly anecdote; it is a window into a tumultuous chapter of Chinese history marked by dynastic collapse, civil war, and the quest to reclaim legitimacy. From its dramatic arrival in Wancheng to its symbolic role in power struggles between rival factions, the head was a silent yet potent witness to the collapse of the Xin dynasty, the fleeting reign of the Gengshi Emperor, and the eventual rise of the Eastern Han under Liu Xiu.

This narrative underscores how symbols—especially those as visceral as a severed head—can wield immense influence in political conflict. It also highlights the complexity and volatility of early first-century China, reminding us that history is often told not only in grand battles and proclamations but in the journeys of the most unexpected artifacts.