The twilight years of the Qing dynasty were marked by profound internal challenges and external threats. Among the numerous attempts to revitalize the faltering empire, the military reforms during the reign of Empress Dowager Cixi stand out as a significant, though ultimately flawed, effort. This article explores the context, motivations, key events, and legacy of these reforms, focusing particularly on the period surrounding the Russo-Japanese War and the crucial role played by reformers like Yuan Shikai and Tie Liang.

Historical Context: The Qing Empire on the Brink

By the early 20th century, the Qing dynasty was grappling with multiple crises. Internally, the imperial military was outdated and ineffective, as painfully revealed during the Boxer Rebellion of 1900, also known as the “Gengzi Incident.” The Qing forces’ poor performance and the refusal of several provincial governors to march north to support the imperial cause deeply unsettled Empress Dowager Cixi. These failures echoed the traumatic “Gengshen Incident” from four decades earlier, when the dynasty also faced severe military and political setbacks.

Externally, the Qing Empire’s sovereignty was increasingly compromised by foreign powers. The outbreak of the Russo-Japanese War in 1904 on Chinese territory, particularly in Manchuria, was a direct threat to Qing territorial integrity. Though officially neutral, the Qing court was painfully aware of its vulnerability. The war’s proximity and the Japanese victory challenged the traditional balance of power in East Asia and exposed the Qing’s military inadequacy.

Amidst this backdrop, Cixi’s attention turned anew to military reform – a long-neglected but vital aspect of Qing governance. Her goal was to build a modern army loyal to the throne, capable of defending the empire and asserting central authority over often autonomous provincial forces.

The Initiation of Military Reform: Setting the Stage

Shortly after returning to Beijing in 1902, Empress Dowager Cixi issued imperial edicts aimed at disbanding the old, fragmented armies and establishing a new, centrally controlled military. This led to the creation of the Training Office , headed by Yuan Shikai and Tie Liang, two prominent military and political figures. The Training Office was tasked with organizing and training new troops that would be directly accountable to the imperial court rather than provincial elites.

In 1904, the urgency of reform intensified. The Russo-Japanese War erupted on Chinese soil, and the Qing court found itself in a deeply humiliating position, forced to declare neutrality despite being the nominal sovereign of the contested territories. This crisis spurred Cixi to accelerate the reform process, recognizing that the fate of the dynasty hinged on military modernization.

The Grand Plan: Training Thirty-Six New Towns

Under Cixi’s directive, the Training Office and the Ministry of War formulated an ambitious blueprint in 1904: the establishment of thirty-six new military towns across the empire. These towns would serve as centers for recruitment, training, and housing of new troops. The plan was designed to dismantle the outdated military structures and replace them with disciplined, standardized units better equipped to respond to threats.

However, the success of this plan depended on securing substantial funding from provincial governments, a task that proved difficult. Many provincial governors were reluctant to part with their limited financial resources or to relinquish control over their local militias. This friction between central and regional authorities was a recurring theme in late Qing reforms.

Tie Liang’s Southern Mission: Consolidating Control and Raising Funds

In July 1904, Empress Dowager Cixi issued a secret imperial edict ordering provincial authorities to raise funds specifically for the new military training program. The edict explicitly acknowledged the precarious position of the empire, noting that the ongoing Russo-Japanese conflict placed China in a “difficult position.” It emphasized the strategic importance of maintaining strong garrisons near the capital and along vital border regions, particularly in the northwest.

The edict also underscored the urgency of the matter, demanding that provincial governors “carefully consider the security of the overall situation” and respond promptly to the call for funds. Despite the clear mandate, many provinces procrastinated or offered only lukewarm support.

To enforce the imperial will, Cixi dispatched Tie Liang southward to conduct a thorough inspection of the Jiangnan Arsenal’s new factory site, audit provincial finances, and assess local military forces. These three tasks served multiple political purposes:

1. Controlling Military Industry: By overseeing the relocation and expansion of the Jiangnan Arsenal, the central government sought to wrest control of military production from provincial authorities, who had long dominated the enterprise since its establishment by reformers like Zeng Guofan and Li Hongzhang in the 1860s.

2. Securing Financial Resources: The auditing of provincial treasuries was intended to compel governors to allocate the promised funds for military training, thereby reducing their fiscal autonomy.

3. Unifying Military Command: The evaluation and reorganization of local troops aimed to integrate provincial forces into a cohesive national army under central control.

Tie Liang executed these tasks with notable success, consolidating the court’s influence over military and financial affairs in the crucial southeastern provinces.

The Jiangnan Arsenal: A Symbol of Reform and Contention

The Jiangnan Arsenal, founded in the mid-19th century during the Self-Strengthening Movement, was one of China’s most important military industrial facilities. Located in the coastal region, it was vulnerable to foreign naval attacks—a major concern during times of conflict.

In 1903, the Governor of Hubei, Zhang Zhidong, proposed relocating the arsenal’s facilities inland to reduce the risk of destruction. This proposal was supported by the Governor of Jiangsu and Jiangxi, Wei Guangzu. The Qing central government seized this opportunity to strengthen its grip on the arsenal by dispatching Tie Liang to oversee the relocation and expansion efforts.

This maneuver surprised the provincial authorities, who had enjoyed relative autonomy over the arsenal’s operations. The central government’s intervention highlighted the growing tension between Beijing and regional powers, a dynamic that would continue to shape the final years of the Qing dynasty.

The Struggle for Funds: Provincial Resistance and Imperial Pressure

Despite repeated imperial edicts, provincial governors were slow to provide the promised military funds. The 1904 decree stipulated that provinces were to contribute a total of 9.66 million taels of silver towards military training, a substantial sum given the empire’s strained finances.

Empress Dowager Cixi’s frustration was palpable. She issued stern warnings that the military buildup was critical to national survival and that all officials must cooperate fully. Her anxiety over the situation was so great that it reportedly affected her health and led to the cancellation of her own birthday celebrations that year.

Moreover, the central government imposed strict supervision over the use of the funds, demanding that all contributions be handed over to the Ministry of Revenue rather than remaining in provincial coffers. This was designed to prevent embezzlement and ensure that the money was used exclusively for military purposes.

The pressure led to a wave of official petitions and accusations, with many local officials framing their requests and administrative maneuvers around the theme of supporting the military reforms. Some even sought to justify tax increases or resource extraction by citing the need to fund the new army.

Yuan Shikai’s Role: Architect of the New Army

Yuan Shikai, a seasoned military leader and political strategist, was a central figure in the reform movement. As head of the Training Office alongside Tie Liang, Yuan was responsible for implementing new military doctrines, organizing training regimens, and overseeing the establishment of the thirty-six new military towns.

Yuan’s vision was to create a professional army that would be loyal to the central government and capable of defending the empire’s sovereignty. His efforts laid important groundwork for the modernization of China’s military forces, even though the reforms ultimately fell short of reversing the dynasty’s decline.

Yuan’s rising influence also sowed seeds of future political developments. His command over the military would later position him as a key player in the collapse of the Qing dynasty and the establishment of the Republic of China.

Cultural and Political Impact: The Limits of Reform

The late Qing military reforms embodied the dynasty’s attempts to adapt to a rapidly changing world. They reflected a growing awareness among Qing leaders of the need to modernize state institutions and strengthen national defense.

However, the reforms faced formidable obstacles: entrenched regionalism, bureaucratic inertia, financial limitations, and foreign interference. The reluctance of provincial governors to relinquish power or fully support the central government’s initiatives highlighted the fragmented nature of Qing rule.

Cixi’s efforts, while earnest in parts, were constrained by her conservative instincts and the complex political landscape. The reforms came too late and were insufficiently comprehensive to transform the Qing military into a truly modern force.

Legacy: Foundations for the Republican Era

Although the late Qing reforms failed to save the dynasty, they significantly influenced China’s subsequent military and political development. The creation of a new, centrally controlled army set precedents for the Republican military apparatus.

Figures like Yuan Shikai would leverage the military modernization efforts to assert political authority beyond the Qing era. The conflicts between centralization and regional autonomy that surfaced during these reforms also foreshadowed the warlord era that engulfed China in the early 20th century.

Moreover, the experience underscored the challenges of modernization in a traditional empire facing imperialist pressures—a theme that would resonate throughout China’s turbulent 20th-century history.

Conclusion: Empress Dowager Cixi’s Last Stand

In the final years of the Qing dynasty, Empress Dowager Cixi’s military reforms represented a determined attempt to confront the empire’s vulnerabilities. The establishment of the Training Office, the ambitious plan for thirty-six new military towns, and the enforcement of provincial military funding were all part of a desperate effort to restore imperial strength.

While these reforms were incomplete and ultimately unsuccessful in halting the dynasty’s decline, they highlight the complex interplay of reform, resistance, and survival in late imperial China. Cixi’s concern for strengthening the army reveals her acute awareness of the existential threats facing the Qing Empire—and her last, significant bid to secure its future.

The story of these reforms offers valuable insights into the challenges of modernization, the dynamics of power within the Qing state, and the enduring impact of late imperial policies on modern Chinese history.