The early years of the Qing dynasty witnessed a resurgence of interest in the history of the Ming dynasty, especially its turbulent final decades. Among the notable historians of this period was Gu Yingtai, whose magnum opus, Chronicles of Ming History, remains a cornerstone for scholars studying the Ming era. This expansive work chronicles nearly three centuries of history, from the humble rise of Zhu Yuanzhang—the founding Hongwu Emperor—to the chaotic fall of the Ming capital to Li Zicheng’s rebel forces, culminating in the tragic end of Emperor Chongzhen. Yet within this sweeping narrative, one episode continues to captivate historians and readers alike: the enigmatic disappearance of the Jianwen Emperor, Zhu Yunwen. This article explores Gu Yingtai’s vivid account of the Jianwen Emperor’s last night in Nanjing, the political and cultural context of the period, and the enduring legacy of this historical mystery.

The Historical Context: The Ming Dynasty’s Fragile Foundations

The Ming dynasty was founded in 1368 by Zhu Yuanzhang, who rose from peasant origins to become the Hongwu Emperor. His reign established a centralized bureaucracy and a rigid political structure designed to prevent the kind of factionalism and rebellion that had plagued previous dynasties. However, the succession after Hongwu’s death in 1398 quickly destabilized the dynasty. His grandson, Zhu Yunwen, ascended the throne as the Jianwen Emperor, inheriting a realm fraught with powerful regional princes who controlled substantial military forces.

Jianwen’s reign was marked by efforts to curtail the influence of these princes, particularly his uncle Zhu Di, the Prince of Yan. Zhu Di’s eventual rebellion led to a civil war known as the Jingnan Campaign, culminating in his capture of Nanjing and ascension as the Yongle Emperor. The fate of the Jianwen Emperor after the fall of Nanjing remains one of the most enduring mysteries of Chinese history.

Gu Yingtai and Chronicles of Ming History: A Qing-Era Historical Treasure

Gu Yingtai, active during the early Qing dynasty, produced Chronicles of Ming History at a time when political censorship and literary inquisitions were not yet fully entrenched. This relatively free intellectual environment allowed Gu to compile a detailed and relatively unbiased account of the Ming dynasty’s complex history. His work is especially valued for its narrative richness and the inclusion of anecdotal details often absent from official histories.

Unlike many other historical records that offer only brief and vague references to Zhu Yunwen’s fate, Gu’s account reads almost like a novel. He provides a gripping description of the Jianwen Emperor’s final hours in the palace, painting a human portrait of a young ruler overwhelmed by defeat yet grappling with the choice between death and survival.

The Last Night in Nanjing: Drama at the Golden River Gate

According to Gu’s chronicle, the decisive moment came in the summer of 1402, on the day corresponding to the sixth month’s “yichou” . Zhu Di’s forces breached the city’s defenses at the Jin Chuan Gate, signaling the collapse of Jianwen’s four-year reign. The young emperor, known for his proud and resolute character, initially resolved to commit suicide by sword.

At this critical juncture, a court scholar named Cheng Ji intervened. Cheng, an actual historical figure, had served as a local official during the Hongwu era and later as a compiler and editor in the Hanlin Academy under Jianwen. Though his official duties were largely clerical, Cheng was reputed for his knowledge of the I Ching and feng shui, which endowed him with a reputation for prophetic insight.

Cheng Ji: The Scholar-Prophet and His Influence

Cheng Ji’s story is fascinating in its own right. He once predicted, based on celestial observations, that a major military upheaval would occur in the northern regions the following year. His prediction initially led to his arrest and near execution for what was deemed seditious speech. However, when Zhu Di’s rebellion erupted as forecasted, Cheng’s status was rehabilitated, and he became a trusted advisor to the Jianwen Emperor.

On the night of Nanjing’s fall, Cheng Ji counseled the emperor against suicide. Drawing on historical precedents, he reminded Zhu Yunwen of the southern courts that survived after northern dynasties fell—the Eastern Jin after the fall of the Western Jin, and the Southern Song after the Jingkang Incident during the Northern Song. Cheng argued that survival offered the possibility of restoration and eventual triumph, whereas death meant irrevocable loss.

This pragmatic philosophy persuaded Jianwen to choose escape over death, setting the stage for a dramatic attempt to flee the besieged capital.

The Secret Escape Plan: The Box of the Hongwu Emperor

Gu Yingtai’s narrative takes an almost fantastical turn with the introduction of a mysterious box left by the dynasty’s founder, the Hongwu Emperor. According to court eunuch Wang Yue, the box was intended for use in times of great danger. Upon opening it, the courtiers found a razor, three sets of monk’s robes, and three official “dudie” passes—documents that granted monks unrestricted passage through city gates.

Each dudie was inscribed with a monk’s name, suggesting a prearranged plan to disguise the emperor and his companions as monks to facilitate their escape. The box also contained ten taels of silver for travel expenses and a letter outlining an escape route to a place called Shenleguan, located in what is now the Xuanwu District of Nanjing.

This episode underscores the desperate and clandestine nature of the escape attempt, highlighting the use of disguise and subterfuge amid political collapse.

The Broader Implications: Survival, Legitimacy, and Historical Memory

The story of the Jianwen Emperor’s escape plan resonates beyond mere intrigue. It reflects the intense struggle over legitimacy and the fragile nature of imperial authority in medieval China. The Yongle Emperor’s usurpation was a significant rupture, and the question of Jianwen’s fate symbolized unresolved tensions within the dynasty.

Gu Yingtai’s account, by preserving these details, contributes to the enduring debate about whether Jianwen died in the palace fire, was secretly spirited away, or lived incognito. Such ambiguity fueled folklore, conspiracy theories, and even political claims in later centuries.

Legacy and Modern Historical Perspectives

The mystery of the Jianwen Emperor remains a subject of fascination in both popular culture and academic circles. Scholars continue to analyze historical texts, archaeological findings, and even folklore to piece together plausible scenarios. Gu Yingtai’s Chronicles of Ming History is frequently cited for its vivid storytelling and unique details, offering a compelling alternative to official Ming histories that often sought to legitimize the Yongle Emperor’s rule by obscuring his predecessor’s fate.

Moreover, the episode illustrates the complex relationship between history and narrative, showing how historians’ perspectives and political contexts shape the recording of events. Gu’s relative freedom from Qing censorship allowed him to preserve a more nuanced account, which remains invaluable to this day.

Conclusion: The Enduring Enigma of the Jianwen Emperor

The fate of the Jianwen Emperor is more than a historical footnote; it is a window into the turbulent transition from one ruler to another, the fragile nature of imperial power, and the human drama behind grand political events. Gu Yingtai’s Chronicles of Ming History breathes life into this mystery, blending careful scholarship with narrative flair.

As readers and historians, we are invited to ponder the emperor’s last night in Nanjing—not just as a moment of defeat, but as a testament to resilience, hope, and the enduring quest for legitimacy in the annals of Chinese history. The story reminds us that history is not just about dates and battles, but about people who faced impossible choices and whose legacies continue to captivate our imagination centuries later.