Introduction: Understanding the Concept of “State” in History

In contemporary academic discourse, there exists a tendency to equate modern conceptions of the state with historical ones. This is an erroneous and unscientific approach. The state as we understand it today encompasses government, territory, people, and sovereignty, and based on the nature of its political power, it may be classified as a people’s democratic state, a capitalist state, or a nationalist state, among others. Historically, however, the meaning of “state” was fundamentally different. In essence, historical states referred solely to the regime of a particular family—not equivalent to the nation-states of the modern era. When Cao Pi, son of the warlord Cao Cao, wrote on his deathbed, “Since ancient times, there has never been a state that did not perish,” he was referring precisely to this familial conception of rule. The “state” here denoted the regime of the Liu family, the Zhao family, the Li family, or the Zhu family—dynastic houses whose rules were frequently overthrown and replaced. Yet, the collapse of one regime did not mean the end of the country itself. For instance, when the Liu family’s Han dynasty was overthrown and Cao Pi assumed the throne, the Three Kingdoms period emerged, and historical continuity persisted. Similarly, when the Cao family’s rule was supplanted by the Sima clan, the state endured. Thus, what was termed “the fall of a state” in historical contexts specifically meant the overthrow of a particular family’s regime—not the dissolution of the nation or the disappearance of its people. This critical distinction allows us to properly examine the rise of figures like Zhu Yuanzhang, the Ming dynasty’s founding emperor, whose establishment of a state represented the Zhu family’s regime, fundamentally different in nature and representation from modern entities like the People’s Republic of China. Only by clarifying this concept can we meaningfully explore the foundations of such historical regimes.

The Upheaval of the Mid-14th Century: A Background to Rebellion

The mid-14th century, particularly the two decades from 1348 to 1368, witnessed one of the most extensive and prolonged periods of peasant uprisings and warfare in Chinese history. These conflicts erupted across nearly the entire territory of the Yuan dynasty, spanning from the northeast to the southwest, and from the northwest to the central-southern regions. The scale was unprecedented, involving not only Han Chinese peasants but also various ethnic minorities, including the Jurchen in the northeast and the Hui people in the southwest. The duration and intensity of these wars were remarkable, marking a period of profound social and political turmoil.

The anti-Yuan military forces during this era can be broadly categorized into two main systems. The first was the Red Army, so named because its members wore red headscarves as symbols of rebellion. Contemporary government documents referred to them as the “Red Army” or occasionally the “Red Turban Army,” and they constituted the primary opposition to Yuan rule. Some modern historians hesitate to use the term “Red Army,” preferring “Red Turban Army” to avoid any unintended association with the 20th-century Communist Red Army. This reluctance stems from political sensitivities; for instance, approximately two decades prior, a Kuomintang-affiliated institution requested the alteration of the term in a historical manuscript, threatening non-publication if the change was not made. The author refused, insisting on historical accuracy: these were indeed the Red Army of the Yuan era, a name describing their attire, not a political statement. The Red Army itself was divided geographically: eastern factions operated in areas such as modern-day Anhui, Henan, and Hebei, while western factions were active in the Jianghan region, encompassing the Yangtze and Han River basins. The latter included subgroups known as the Northern Lock Red Army and the Southern Lock Red Army.

The second system comprised non-Red Army forces, including early rebels like Fang Guozhen in Zhejiang, Zhang Shicheng in Jiangsu, and Chen Youding in Fujian. These leaders operated independently of the Red Army network, yet contributed significantly to the anti-Yuan struggle. The reasons for such widespread rebellion are rooted in the socio-economic conditions of the Yuan dynasty, including oppressive policies, ethnic stratification, and economic disparities, which had been discussed in prior historical contexts and need not be reiterated here.

Key Themes of the Red Army: Slogans and Ideals

Among the Red Army’s leadership, certain declarations and proclamations involving multiple ethnicities united by common cause.

This slogan underscored the Red Army’s aim to overthrow a regime perceived as exploitative and alien. It highlighted the north-south divide, with the Yuan aristocracy and administrative apparatus concentrated in the north, draining resources from the southern provinces. The call to arms was not merely a military campaign but a socio-economic revolt, seeking to redress imbalances and restore dignity to the marginalized. Understanding this context is essential to appreciating the broader implications of the peasant wars and their role in shaping the subsequent Ming dynasty.

The Dynamics of Land Relations in the Yuan-Ming Transition

To comprehend the land relations during this period, one must first grasp the broader historical circumstances. The Yuan dynasty implemented a land tenure system that heavily favored the aristocracy, military elites, and religious institutions, often at the expense of the peasantry. Large estates were granted to Mongol nobles and allied groups, leading to widespread tenant farming and serf-like conditions for many agricultural workers. This system created profound discontent, fueling the peasant uprisings that characterized the mid-14th century.

The Red Army and other rebel forces advocated for land redistribution and the abolition of oppressive feudal practices. Although their policies were not uniformly implemented, their rhetoric resonated with landless peasants and those burdened by excessive taxation and corvée labor. The eventual success of Zhu Yuanzhang and the Ming founding was partly due to his ability to channel these agrarian grievances into a cohesive movement. He promised—and to some extent delivered—land reforms that aimed to stabilize rural society and secure the support of the peasant base.

Upon establishing the Ming dynasty, Zhu Yuanzhang initiated measures to survey landholdings, redistribute confiscated estates, and promote agricultural productivity. These actions were instrumental in consolidating his rule and ensuring economic recovery after decades of warfare. However, it is crucial to recognize that these reforms served primarily to strengthen the Zhu family’s regime, not to create an egalitarian society. The Ming state remained a dynastic entity, prioritizing the interests of the ruling family and its allies over those of the broader population.

The Legacy of the Red Army and the Foundation of Ming Power

The Red Army’s legacy is multifaceted, influencing both the downfall of the Yuan and the rise of the Ming. Their prolonged resistance weakened Yuan military capabilities, disrupted administrative control, and demonstrated the power of mass mobilization. Zhu Yuanzhang, himself a former monk and rebel leader, skillfully integrated elements of the Red Army into his forces, leveraging their organizational networks and popular appeal. His strategic marriages, military alliances, and pragmatic policies enabled him to outmaneuver rivals like Chen Youliang and Zhang Shicheng, ultimately unifying much of China under his banner.

The Ming founding in 1368 marked the culmination of these efforts, but it also represented a transformation of the rebel ethos into a new dynastic order. Zhu Yuanzhang’s regime relied on a combination of military strength, ideological legitimacy , and economic incentives to secure power. The Red Army’s radical edge was tempered by state-building necessities, resulting in a system that, while more responsive to peasant needs than the Yuan, still upheld hierarchical and authoritarian structures.

Conclusion: Reassessing Historical States and Their Modern Implications

The historical exploration of states and dynasties reveals a complex interplay between regime change and national continuity. The fall of the Yuan and rise of the Ming exemplify how “the end of a state” meant the replacement of one ruling family with another, rather than the dissolution of the country itself. This perspective challenges anachronistic projections of modern nationalism onto the past and emphasizes the importance of contextual understanding.

For contemporary readers, this history offers insights into the nature of power, rebellion, and state formation. It reminds us that historical movements are often driven by tangible grievances—economic inequality, social injustice, and ethnic tensions—that resonate across centuries. By examining the Red Army’s struggle and Zhu Yuanzhang’s ascent, we gain a deeper appreciation for the forces that shape civilizations and the enduring quest for equity and legitimacy in governance.

In studying these events, we not only honor the past but also enrich our understanding of the present, recognizing that the echoes of history continue to inform modern political and social dynamics.