The Powder Keg of the Near East
The year 1840 witnessed two pivotal events in German history: the Prussian succession and the Rhine Crisis. While seemingly unrelated, both reflected the volatile European order following the Napoleonic Wars. The Rhine Crisis had its roots in the Eastern Question—the slow disintegration of the Ottoman Empire—and France’s colonial ambitions in North Africa.
France, fresh from its 1830 invasion of Algeria, sought allies to consolidate its position in the Maghreb. It found one in Muhammad Ali, the ambitious viceroy of Egypt, who aimed to break free from Ottoman suzerainty and carve out an independent empire. By 1839, tensions escalated when Ottoman forces attempted to reclaim Syria—lost to Muhammad Ali’s forces six years earlier—only to suffer a humiliating defeat. The Ottoman navy even defected to the Egyptian side, signaling the empire’s vulnerability.
The Concert of Europe Reacts
Alarmed by the prospect of Ottoman collapse, Britain’s Foreign Secretary Lord Palmerston orchestrated an unlikely coalition with Russia, Austria, and Prussia. The resulting London Treaty of July 1840 sought to preserve the Ottoman Empire, offering Muhammad Ali hereditary rule over Egypt and the governorship of Acre—far less than he desired. Notably, France was excluded from these negotiations, a deliberate snub that stoked nationalist fury in Paris.
For France, the treaty evoked bitter memories of the 1814 Treaty of Chaumont, which had denied its claim to the Rhine as a “natural” border. The public saw the 1840 agreement as a diplomatic Waterloo, igniting calls for revenge and a revision of the post-Napoleonic order.
War Fever and Nationalist Fervor
By late 1840, Europe teetered on the brink of war. French Prime Minister Adolphe Thiers, capitalizing on public outrage, pursued a policy of grandeur, demanding the Rhine as France’s eastern frontier while accelerating military preparations. The German states responded with an unprecedented surge of patriotism. Songs like Die Wacht am Rhein (The Watch on the Rhine) and Rheinlied (Rhine Song) became cultural anthems, while Heinrich Hoffmann von Fallersleben’s Das Deutschlandlied (later Germany’s national anthem) echoed the era’s nationalist zeal.
For the first time, German nationalism transcended regional and political divides. Unlike the liberal idealism of the 1832 Hambach Festival, the 1840 crisis unified Germans across class and ideology under the banner of defense against French aggression. As Heinrich von Gagern, a prominent liberal leader, noted: “Unity—active, not mystical—became the rallying cry.”
The Crisis Unravels
War was averted by a combination of military realities and diplomatic maneuvering. A British-led coalition swiftly defeated Muhammad Ali’s forces in Syria, forcing his submission to the Ottoman Sultan. In France, King Louis-Philippe replaced Thiers with the more conciliatory François Guizot, who prioritized reconciliation with Europe. By 1841, the Straits Convention formalized a new balance of power, replacing Russia’s unilateral influence over the Ottomans with a collective guarantee by the Great Powers.
Legacy of the Rhine Crisis
The crisis reshaped European geopolitics in three key ways:
1. British Ascendancy: Palmerston’s diplomacy cemented Britain’s role as the arbiter of European stability.
2. French Decline: The July Monarchy’s humiliation eroded its legitimacy, foreshadowing the 1848 revolutions.
3. German Nationalism: The crisis marked a turning point where unification eclipsed liberal reform as the dominant political ideal, setting the stage for the 1848 revolutions and eventual Bismarckian unification.
The Rhine Crisis of 1840 remains a watershed moment—a fleeting yet profound alignment of diplomacy, nationalism, and cultural identity that foreshadowed the conflicts and alliances of modern Europe.