The year 1875 stands as a pivotal moment in the late Qing dynasty, encapsulating the tensions between tradition and reform, the fragility of imperial power, and the complex interplay of personalities that shaped China’s fate. Marked by the death of the Tongzhi Emperor, the resurgence of Empress Dowager Cixi’s political dominance, and contentious debates over national priorities like the rebuilding of the Old Summer Palace, 1875 reveals the fragile crossroads at which the Qing empire found itself during a period of profound transformation.

Historical Context: The Late Qing and the Era of Self-Strengthening

By the mid-19th century, the Qing dynasty was under immense pressure. The Taiping Rebellion had devastated vast swathes of China, and foreign powers had imposed humiliating treaties after the Opium Wars. The dynasty’s grip on power was tenuous, prompting internal calls for reform.

In 1861, the young Tongzhi Emperor ascended to the throne under a regency led by Empress Dowager Cixi, Empress Dowager Ci’an, and Prince Gong . This triumvirate embarked on what would later be called the Self-Strengthening Movement—a cautious attempt to modernize military and industrial capabilities without radically altering the Confucian order.

The Tongzhi era’s very name symbolized a collective governance ideal: a “joint reign” or “co-governance” between the emperor, the two empress dowagers, and reform-minded officials. The aim was to harmonize Manchu and Han officials and bridge internal divisions through shared responsibility.

The Tongzhi Emperor’s Reign and Growing Discontent

As Tongzhi Emperor came of age, the initial hopes for a renewed, collaborative rule dimmed. By 1873, he had taken formal control—“personally ruling”—but his attitude toward the established power structure was fraught with tension.

Unlike the ideal of co-governance, the young emperor harbored resentment and distrust toward the regency and reformist bureaucrats, including Prince Gong. This was exemplified in his handling of the Old Summer Palace by Anglo-French forces.

The palace’s destruction was not only a physical loss but a profound psychological wound for the Aisin Gioro clan. Rebuilding it became a symbol of revival and national pride, especially among officials and intellectuals advocating for a Qing resurgence.

The Controversy of the Yuanmingyuan Restoration

In 1874, with the emperor firmly in charge, plans to restore the Yuanmingyuan came into sharp focus. The move was seen by many as premature and extravagant, given the empire’s dire financial straits, ongoing military challenges, and widespread social suffering due to natural disasters.

Officials like Shen Huai, an inspector from Shaanxi province, submitted formal petitions opposing the restoration. He argued that the treasury was depleted, natural calamities demanded urgent relief, and military affairs were far from settled. His appeals, however, were met with imperial wrath.

The emperor, motivated by filial piety toward the two empress dowagers and a desire to reassert imperial dignity, insisted on “selective restoration” of the palace—not a full reconstruction, but enough to provide a dignified retirement home for the dowagers. Yet, “selective” in this context entailed rebuilding more than 3,000 rooms, an undertaking of vast scale and expense.

Further opposition came from You Baichuan, an official from Fujian, who faced similar imperial rebuke after eloquently voicing his objections.

Despite protests, the restoration project officially began in 1874, with timber and materials sourced from southern provinces. This effort reflected the emperor’s determination but also exposed the gulf between imperial ambitions and practical realities.

The Death of the Tongzhi Emperor and the Return of Empress Dowager Cixi

The year 1875’s most consequential event was the sudden death of the Tongzhi Emperor at the age of 19. His brief personal rule had failed to reconcile the competing interests within the Qing court or to steer China decisively toward modernization.

Following his death, the throne passed to a three-year-old boy, the Guangxu Emperor, signaling an impending power vacuum. Seizing the opportunity, Empress Dowager Cixi re-emerged from the inner palace to resume regency, exercising power “behind the curtain” once more.

At only 40 years old, Cixi was a formidable political operator well-versed in traditional court intrigues and power tactics. However, her worldview remained anchored in conservative values and ritual propriety, less adapted to the rapidly changing political and technological landscape that China faced.

Her return to power marked a continuation of cautious, often reactive governance, prioritizing stability and imperial prerogatives over bold reform.

The Significance of 1875: A Year of Uncertain Reform and Ambiguous Legacy

The events of 1875 encapsulate the complex contradictions of late Qing governance. The Tongzhi Emperor’s distrust of collaborative rule and insistence on the Yuanmingyuan restoration reveal a leadership caught between nostalgia and change.

Meanwhile, the resistance from officials like Shen Huai and You Baichuan underscores the rising voices advocating pragmatism and fiscal responsibility amid crisis. Their challenges, though ultimately unsuccessful, highlight an emerging political consciousness wary of imperial excess.

Empress Dowager Cixi’s return to power foreshadowed the dynasty’s persistent struggle to adapt. Her regency would last into the 20th century, marked by oscillations between reform and conservatism, culminating in the dynasty’s eventual fall in 1911.

Broader Cultural and Political Impacts

The Yuanmingyuan restoration controversy was more than a debate over architecture; it symbolized the broader dilemmas facing Qing China. The tension between preserving tradition and embracing modernization mirrored debates in other parts of the world during the era of imperial decline.

The Qing court’s inability to resolve these tensions decisively contributed to continued internal weaknesses and vulnerability to foreign encroachment. The restoration project, while a gesture of filial piety and national pride, diverted resources that might have otherwise bolstered military modernization or disaster relief.

Furthermore, the death of the Tongzhi Emperor without an heir underscored the fragility of Qing succession and the dangers of concentrated power in the hands of a few regents.

Conclusion: The Legacy of 1875 in Qing History

The year 1875 remains a critical juncture in the twilight years of imperial China. It was a moment when reform ambitions collided with entrenched power structures, when youthful idealism met political realities, and when traditional authority reasserted itself amid calls for modernization.

The death of the Tongzhi Emperor ended a fragile experiment in shared governance, while Empress Dowager Cixi’s return heralded a continuation of conservative regency that would both stabilize and stifle the dynasty.

The contested restoration of the Yuanmingyuan encapsulates the era’s contradictions—between reverence for the past and the urgent needs of the present.

Ultimately, 1875 serves as a poignant reminder of the Qing dynasty’s struggle to navigate a rapidly changing world, setting the stage for the further upheavals that would reshape China in the decades to come.